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Native American business owners are seldom offered auxiliary resources that are crucial for entrepreneurial success. American Indian activists in the United States and Canada have criticized the use of Native American mascots in sports, as perpetuating stereotypes.
This is considered cultural appropriation. There has been a steady decline in the number of secondary school and college teams using such names, images, and mascots. Some tribal team names have been approved by the tribe in question, such as the Seminole Tribe of Florida 's approving use of their name for the teams of Florida State University.
The NFL 's Washington Redskins , whose name was considered to be a racial slur , [] has recently been removed. They are currently now known as the Washington Football Team. On December 13, The New York Times reported that Cleveland would be officially changing their name, set to take affect likely following the season.
Native Americans have been depicted by American artists in various ways at different periods. A number of 19th- and 20th-century United States and Canadian painters, often motivated by a desire to document and preserve Native culture, specialized in Native American subjects.
In the 20th century, early portrayals of Native Americans in movies and television roles were first performed by European Americans dressed in mock traditional attire. Roles of Native Americans were limited and not reflective of Native American culture. For years, Native people on U. During the years of the series Bonanza — , no major or secondary Native characters appeared on a consistent basis.
The series The Lone Ranger — , Cheyenne — , and Law of the Plainsman — had Native characters who were essentially aides to the central white characters.
This continued in such series as How the West Was Won. These programs resembled the "sympathetic" yet contradictory film Dances With Wolves of , in which, according to Ella Shohat and Robert Stam, the narrative choice was to relate the Lakota story as told through a Euro-American voice, for wider impact among a general audience.
The film Smoke Signals , which was set on the Coeur D'Alene Reservation and discussed hardships of present-day American Indian families living on reservations, featured numerous Native American actors as well.
It represented "an unprecedented collaboration between Native and non-Native filmmakers and involves Native advisors and scholars at all levels of the project". The term Native American was introduced in the United States in preference to the older term Indian to distinguish the indigenous peoples of the Americas from the people of India.
In , a plurality of indigenous Americans, however, preferred the term American Indian [] and many tribes include the word Indian in their formal title. Criticism of the neologism Native American comes from diverse sources. Russell Means , a Native American activist, opposed the term Native American because he believed it was imposed by the government without the consent of natives. He has also argued that the use of the word Indian derives not from a confusion with India but from a Spanish expression en Dios meaning "in God" [] [ verification needed ] and a near- homophone of the Spanish word for "Indians", indios.
A U. Gambling has become a leading industry. Casinos operated by many Native American governments in the United States are creating a stream of gambling revenue that some communities are beginning to leverage to build diversified economies. Some tribes, such as the Winnemem Wintu of Redding, California , feel that casinos and their proceeds destroy culture from the inside out.
These tribes refuse to participate in the gambling industry. Numerous tribes around the country have entered the financial services market including the Otoe-Missouria , Tunica-Biloxi , and the Rosebud Sioux. Because of the challenges involved in starting a financial services business from scratch, many tribes hire outside consultants and vendors to help them launch these businesses and manage the regulatory issues involved.
Similar to the tribal sovereignty debates that occurred when tribes first entered the gaming industry, the tribes, states, and federal government are currently in disagreement regarding who possesses the authority to regulate these e-commerce business entities.
Prosecution of serious crime, historically endemic on reservations, [] [] was required by the Major Crimes Act, [] 18 U. A December 13, New York Times article about growing gang violence on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation estimated that there were 39 gangs with 5, members on that reservation alone. As of , a high incidence of rape continued to impact Native American women and Alaskan native women. According to the Department of Justice, 1 in 3 Native women have suffered rape or attempted rape, more than twice the national rate.
Bruce Duthu, "More than 80 percent of Indian victims identify their attacker as non-Indian". Today, other than tribes successfully running casinos, many tribes struggle, as they are often located on reservations isolated from the main economic centers of the country.
The estimated 2. According to the Census , an estimated , Native Americans reside on reservation land. Strategies and Institutions in American Indian Economic Development , [] are summarized as follows:. A major barrier to development is the lack of entrepreneurial knowledge and experience within Indian reservations.
Consequently, experiential entrepreneurship education needs to be embedded into school curriculum and after-school and other community activities. This would allow students to learn the essential elements of entrepreneurship from a young age and encourage them to apply these elements throughout life". Some scholars argue that the existing theories and practices of economic development are not suitable for Native American communities—given the lifestyle, economic, and cultural differences, as well as the unique history of Native American-U.
The federal government fails to consider place-based issues of American Indian poverty by generalizing the demographic. Native land that is owned by individual Native Americans sometimes cannot be developed because of fractionalization.
Fractionalization occurs when a landowner dies, and their land is inherited by their children, but not subdivided. This means that one parcel might be owned by 50 different individuals. A majority of those holding interest must agree to any proposal to develop the land, and establishing this consent is time-consuming, cumbersome, and sometimes impossible.
Another landownership issue on reservations is checkerboarding, where Tribal land is interspersed with land owned by the federal government on behalf of Natives, individually owned plots, and land owned by non-Native individuals. This prevents Tribal governments from securing plots of land large enough for economic development or agricultural uses.
This bars Native Americans from getting loans, as there is nothing that a bank can collect if the loan is not paid. Past efforts to encourage landownership such as the Dawes Act resulted in a net loss of Tribal land. After they were familiarized with their smallholder status , Native American landowners were lifted of trust restrictions and their land would get transferred back to them, contingent on a transactional fee to the federal government.
They claim that because of this history, property rights are foreign to Natives and have no place in the modern reservation system. Those in favor of property rights cite examples of tribes negotiating with colonial communities or other tribes about fishing and hunting rights in an area.
State-level efforts such as the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act were attempts to contain tribal land in Native American hands.
However, more bureaucratic decisions only expanded the size of the bureaucracy. The knowledge disconnect between the decision-making bureaucracy and Native American stakeholders resulted in ineffective development efforts.
Traditional Native American entrepreneurship does not prioritize profit maximization , rather, business transactions must have align with their social and cultural values. Often, bureaucratic overseers of development are far removed from Native American communities, and lack the knowledge and understanding to develop plans or make resource allocation decisions. Such incidences include fabricated reports that exaggerate results. While Native American urban poverty is attributed to hiring and workplace discrimination in a heterogeneous setting, [] reservation and trust land poverty rates are endogenous to deserted opportunities in isolated regions.
Historical trauma is described as collective emotional and psychological damage throughout a person's lifetime and across multiple generations. American Indian youth have higher rates of substance and alcohol abuse deaths than the general population. The culture of Pre-Columbian North America is usually defined by the concept of the culture area, namely a geographical region where shared cultural traits occur. The northwest culture area, for example shared common traits such as salmon fishing, woodworking, and large villages or towns and a hierarchical social structure.
Though cultural features, language, clothing, and customs vary enormously from one tribe to another, there are certain elements which are encountered frequently and shared by many tribes. Early European American scholars described the Native Americans as having a society dominated by clans. European colonization of the Americas had a major impact on Native American cultures through what is known as the Columbian exchange.
The Columbian exchange , also known as the Columbian interchange , was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and Eurasia the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries, following Christopher Columbus 's voyage.
The impact of the Columbian exchange was not entirely negative however. For example, the re-introduction of the horse to North America allowed the Plains Indian to revolutionize their ways of life by making hunting, trading, and warfare far more effective, and to greatly improve their ability to transport possessions and move their settlements.
The Great Plains tribes were still hunting the bison when they first encountered the Europeans. The Spanish reintroduction of the horse to North America in the 17th century and Native Americans' learning to use them greatly altered the Native Americans' cultures, including changing the way in which they hunted large game.
Horses became such a valuable, central element of Native lives that they were counted as a measure of wealth by many tribes.
In the early years, as Native peoples encountered European explorers and settlers and engaged in trade, they exchanged food, crafts, and furs for blankets, iron and steel implements, horses, trinkets, firearms, and alcoholic beverages.
Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers 1. Southwest and northern Mexico with one outlier in the Plains. Several families consist of only 2 or 3 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America.
Two large super- family proposals, Penutian and Hokan , look particularly promising. However, even after decades of research, a large number of families remain. A number of words used in English have been derived from Native American languages. To counteract a shift to English, some Native American tribes have initiated language immersion schools for children, where an Indigenous American language is the medium of instruction.
For example, the Cherokee Nation initiated a year language preservation plan that involved raising new fluent speakers of the Cherokee language from childhood on up through school immersion programs as well as a collaborative community effort to continue to use the language at home.
There is also a Cherokee language immersion school in Tahlequah, Oklahoma , that educates students from pre-school through eighth grade. Historical diets of Native Americans differed dramatically region to region.
Different peoples might have relied more heavily on agriculture, horticulture, hunting, fishing, or gathering of wild plants and fungi.
Tribes developed diets best suited to their environments. Coastal peoples relied more heavily on sea mammals, fish, and fish eggs, while inland peoples hunted caribou and moose. Pacific Northwest tribes crafted seafaring dugouts 40—50 feet 12—15 m long for fishing. In the Eastern Woodlands , early peoples independently invented agricultural and by BCE developed the crops of the Eastern Agricultural Complex , which include squash Cucurbita pepo ssp.
The Sonoran desert region including parts of Arizona and California , part of a region known as Aridoamerica , relied heavily on the tepary bean Phaseolus acutifolius as a staple crop. This and other desert crops, mesquite bead pods, tunas prickly pear fruit , cholla buds, saguaro cactus fruit, and acorns are being actively promoted today by Tohono O'odham Community Action.
They filled storehouses with grain as protection against the area's frequent droughts. Maize or corn , first cultivated in what is now Mexico was traded north into Aridoamerica and Oasisamerica , southwest. Native farmers practiced polycropping maize, beans, and squash; these crops are known as the Three Sisters. The beans would replace the nitrogen , which the maize leached from the ground, as well as using corn stalks for support for climbing.
The agriculture gender roles of the Native Americans varied from region to region. In the Southwest area, men prepared the soil with hoes. The women were in charge of planting , weeding , and harvesting the crops.
In most other regions, the women were in charge of most agriculture, including clearing the land. Clearing the land was an immense chore since the Native Americans rotated fields. Europeans in the eastern part of the continent observed that Native Americans cleared large areas for cropland. Their fields in New England sometimes covered hundreds of acres.
Colonists in Virginia noted thousands of acres under cultivation by Native Americans. Early farmers commonly used tools such as the hoe , maul , and dibber. The hoe was the main tool used to till the land and prepare it for planting; then it was used for weeding. The first versions were made out of wood and stone. When the settlers brought iron , Native Americans switched to iron hoes and hatchets.
The dibber was a digging stick, used to plant the seed. Once the plants were harvested, women prepared the produce for eating. They used the maul to grind the corn into mash. It was cooked and eaten that way or baked as corn bread. Native American religious practices, beliefs, and philosophies differ widely across tribes. These spiritualities , practices, beliefs, and philosophies may accompany adherence to another faith, or can represent a person's primary religious, faith, spiritual or philosophical identity.
Much Native American spirituality exists in a tribal-cultural continuum, and as such cannot be easily separated from tribal identity itself.
Cultural spiritual, philosophical, and faith ways differ from tribe to tribe and person to person. Some tribes include the use of sacred leaves and herbs such as tobacco, sweetgrass or sage.
Many Plains tribes have sweatlodge ceremonies, though the specifics of the ceremony vary among tribes. Fasting, singing and prayer in the ancient languages of their people, and sometimes drumming are also common. The Midewiwin Lodge is a medicine society inspired by the oral history and prophesies of the Ojibwa Chippewa and related tribes. Another significant religious body among Native peoples is known as the Native American Church.
It is a syncretistic church incorporating elements of Native spiritual practice from a number of different tribes as well as symbolic elements from Christianity. Its main rite is the peyote ceremony. Prior to , traditional religious beliefs included Wakan Tanka. In the American Southwest, especially New Mexico , a syncretism between the Catholicism brought by Spanish missionaries and the native religion is common; the religious drums, chants, and dances of the Pueblo people are regularly part of Masses at Santa Fe 's Saint Francis Cathedral.
The eagle feather law Title 50 Part 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain eagle feathers for religious or spiritual use.
The law does not allow Native Americans to give eagle feathers to non-Native Americans. Gender roles are differentiated in many Native American tribes. Many Natives have retained traditional expectations of sexuality and gender, and continue to do so in contemporary life despite continued and on-going colonial pressures.
Whether a particular tribe is predominantly matrilineal or patrilineal , often both sexes have some degree of decision-making power within the tribe.
Many Nations, such as the Haudenosaunee Five Nations and the Southeast Muskogean tribes, have matrilineal or Clan Mother systems, in which property and hereditary leadership are controlled by and passed through the maternal lines. In Cherokee culture, women own the family property. When traditional young women marry, their husbands may join them in their mother's household.
Matrilineal structures enable young women to have assistance in childbirth and rearing, and protect them in case of conflicts between the couple. If a couple separates or the man dies, the woman has her family to assist her. In matrilineal cultures the mother's brothers are usually the leading male figures in her children's lives; fathers have no standing in their wife and children's clan, as they still belong to their own mother's clan.
Hereditary clan chief positions pass through the mother's line and chiefs have historically been selected on recommendation of women elders, who could also disapprove of a chief. In the patrilineal tribes, such as the Omaha , Osage , Ponca , and Lakota , hereditary leadership passes through the male line, and children are considered to belong to the father and his clan.
In patrilineal tribes, if a woman marries a non-Native, she is no longer considered part of the tribe, and her children are considered to share the ethnicity and culture of their father. In patriarchal tribes, gender roles tend to be rigid. Men have historically hunted, traded and made war while, as life-givers, women have primary responsibility for the survival and welfare of the families and future of the tribe.
Women usually gather and cultivate plants, use plants and herbs to treat illnesses, care for the young and the elderly, make all the clothing and instruments, and process and cure meat and skins from the game. Some mothers use cradleboards to carry an infant while working or traveling. At least several dozen tribes allowed polygyny to sisters, with procedural and economic limits.
Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota girls are encouraged to learn to ride, hunt and fight. Native American leisure time led to competitive individual and team sports. Native American ball sports, sometimes referred to as lacrosse , stickball, or baggataway, were often used to settle disputes, rather than going to war, as a civil way to settle potential conflict.
The Choctaw called it isitoboli "Little Brother of War" ; [] the Onondaga name was dehuntshigwa'es "men hit a rounded object". There are three basic versions, classified as Great Lakes, Iroquoian, and Southern.
The game is played with one or two rackets or sticks and one ball. The object of the game is to land the ball in the opposing team's goal either a single post or net to score and to prevent the opposing team from scoring on your goal.
The game involves as few as 20 or as many as players with no height or weight restrictions and no protective gear. The goals could be from around feet 61 m apart to about 2 miles 3. Chunkey was a game that consisted of a stone-shaped disk that was about 1—2 inches in diameter. The disk was thrown down a foot 61 m corridor so that it could roll past the players at great speed.
The disk would roll down the corridor, and players would throw wooden shafts at the moving disk. The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it. Jim Thorpe , a Sauk and Fox Native American, was an all-round athlete playing football and baseball in the early 20th century.
Future President Dwight Eisenhower injured his knee while trying to tackle the young Thorpe. In a speech, Eisenhower recalled Thorpe: "Here and there, there are some people who are supremely endowed.
My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life, and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw. In the Olympics, Thorpe could run the yard dash in 10 seconds flat, the in Olympic trials for the pentathlon and the decathlon. Louis Tewanima , Hopi people , was an American two-time Olympic distance runner and silver medalist in the 10, meter run in His silver medal in remained the best U.
Tewanima also competed at the Olympics, where he finished in ninth place in the marathon. He was the only American ever to win the Olympic gold in this event. An unknown before the Olympics, Mills finished second in the U. Olympic trials. Billy Kidd , part Abenaki from Vermont , became the first American male to medal in alpine skiing in the Olympics, taking silver at age 20 in the slalom in the Winter Olympics at Innsbruck , Austria.
Six years later at the World Championships, Kidd won the gold medal in the combined event and took the bronze medal in the slalom. Traditional Native American music is almost entirely monophonic , but there are notable exceptions. Native American music often includes drumming or the playing of rattles or other percussion instruments but little other instrumentation. Flutes and whistles made of wood, cane, or bone are also played, generally by individuals, but in former times also by large ensembles as noted by Spanish conquistador de Soto.
The tuning of modern flutes is typically pentatonic. Some, such as John Trudell , have used music to comment on life in Native America. Other musicians such as R. Carlos Nakai , Joanne Shenandoah and Robert "Tree" Cody integrate traditional sounds with modern sounds in instrumental recordings, whereas the music by artist Charles Littleleaf is derived from ancestral heritage as well as nature.
A variety of small and medium-sized recording companies offer an abundance of recent music by Native American performers young and old, ranging from pow-wow drum music to hard-driving rock-and-roll and rap. In the International world of ballet dancing Maria Tallchief was considered America's first major prima ballerina , [] and was the first person of Native American descent to hold the rank.
The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans in the United States is that of the pow-wow. At pow-wows, such as the annual Gathering of Nations in Albuquerque, New Mexico , members of drum groups sit in a circle around a large drum. Drum groups play in unison while they sing in a native language and dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups in the center.
Familiar pow-wow songs include honor songs, intertribal songs, crow-hops, sneak-up songs, grass-dances, two-steps, welcome songs, going-home songs, and war songs. Most indigenous communities in the United States also maintain traditional songs and ceremonies, some of which are shared and practiced exclusively within the community. The Iroquois , living around the Great Lakes and extending east and north, used strings or belts called wampum that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and a unit of measure.
The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries. Pueblo peoples crafted impressive items associated with their religious ceremonies. Kachina dancers wore elaborately painted and decorated masks as they ritually impersonated various ancestral spirits. Superior weaving, embroidered decorations, and rich dyes characterized the textile arts. Both turquoise and shell jewelry were created, as were formalized pictorial arts.
Navajo spirituality focused on the maintenance of a harmonious relationship with the spirit world, often achieved by ceremonial acts, usually incorporating sandpainting. For the Navajo, the sand painting is not merely a representational object, but a dynamic spiritual entity with a life of its own, which helped the patient at the centre of the ceremony re-establish a connection with the life force.
These vivid, intricate, and colorful sand creations were erased at the end of the healing ceremony. The Native American arts and crafts industry brings in more than a billion in gross sales annually. Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection.
Native American contributions include pottery , paintings , jewellery , weavings , sculpture , basketry , and carvings. The integrity of certain Native American artworks is protected by the Indian Arts and Crafts Act of , which prohibits representation of art as Native American when it is not the product of an enrolled Native American artist.
Attorney Gail Sheffield and others claim that this law has had "the unintended consequence of sanctioning discrimination against Native Americans whose tribal affiliation was not officially recognized". Interracial relations between Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans is a complex issue that has been mostly neglected with "few in-depth studies on interracial relationships".
One case is that of Gonzalo Guerrero , a European from Spain , who was shipwrecked along the Yucatan Peninsula , and fathered three Mestizo children with a Mayan noblewoman. European impact was immediate, widespread, and profound already during the early years of colonization and the creation of the countries which currently exist in the Americas.
Europeans living among Native Americans were often called "white indians". They "lived in native communities for years, learned native languages fluently, attended native councils, and often fought alongside their native companions".
Early contact was often charged with tension and emotion, but also had moments of friendship, cooperation, and intimacy. There was fear on both sides, as the different peoples realized how different their societies were. Orthodox Christians never viewed Native people as savages or sub-human. Blackbird, wrote in his History of the Ottawa and Chippewa Indians of Michigan , that white settlers introduced some immoralities into Native American tribes.
Many Native Americans suffered because the Europeans introduced alcohol. Many Native people do not break down alcohol in the same way as people of Eurasian background.
Many Native people were learning what their body could tolerate of this new substance and died as a result of imbibing too much. Blackbird wrote:. The Ottawas and Chippewas were quite virtuous in their primitive state, as there were no illegitimate children reported in our old traditions.
But very lately this evil came to exist among the Ottawas-so lately that the second case among the Ottawas of 'Arbor Croche' is yet living in And from that time this evil came to be quite frequent, for immorality has been introduced among these people by evil white persons who bring their vices into the tribes. For a Native American man to marry a white woman, he had to get consent of her parents, as long as "he can prove to support her as a white woman in a good home".
In the late 19th century, three European-American middle-class women teachers at Hampton Institute married Native American men whom they had met as students.
As European-American women started working independently at missions and Indian schools in the western states, there were more opportunities for their meeting and developing relationships with Native American men. For instance, Charles Eastman , a man of European and Lakota origin whose father sent both his sons to Dartmouth College , got his medical degree at Boston University and returned to the West to practice.
He married Elaine Goodale , whom he met in South Dakota. He was the grandson of Seth Eastman , a military officer from Maine, and a chief's daughter. Goodale was a young European-American teacher from Massachusetts and a reformer, who was appointed as the U. They had six children together. The majority of Native American tribes did practice some form of slavery before the European introduction of African slavery into North America, but none exploited slave labor on a large scale.
Most Native American tribes did not barter captives in the pre-colonial era, although they sometimes exchanged enslaved individuals with other tribes in peace gestures or in exchange for their own members. Native Americans began selling war captives to Europeans rather than integrating them into their own societies as they had done before. As the demand for labor in the West Indies grew with the cultivation of sugar cane , Europeans enslaved Native Americans for the Thirteen Colonies , and some were exported to the "sugar islands".
The British settlers, especially those in the southern colonies, purchased or captured Native Americans to use as forced labor in cultivating tobacco, rice, and indigo. Accurate records of the numbers enslaved do not exist because vital statistics and census reports were at best infrequent.
The Virginia General Assembly defined some terms of slavery in All servants imported and brought into the Country; All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion; If any slave resists his master; The slave trade of Native Americans lasted only until around It gave rise to a series of devastating wars among the tribes, including the Yamasee War.
The Indian Wars of the early 18th century, combined with the increasing importation of African slaves, effectively ended the Native American slave trade by Colonists found that Native American slaves could easily escape, as they knew the country. The wars cost the lives of numerous colonial slave traders and disrupted their early societies.
The remaining Native American groups banded together to face the Europeans from a position of strength. Many surviving Native American peoples of the southeast strengthened their loose coalitions of language groups and joined confederacies such as the Choctaw , the Creek , and the Catawba for protection.
Even after the Indian Slave Trade ended in the enslavement of Native Americans continued in the west, and also in the Southern states mostly through kidnappings.
African and Native Americans have interacted for centuries. The earliest record of Native American and African contact occurred in April , when Spanish colonists transported the first Africans to Hispaniola to serve as slaves. Sometimes Native Americans resented the presence of African Americans.
The carrying of Negroes among the Indians has all along been thought detrimental, as an intimacy ought to be avoided. Europeans considered both races inferior and made efforts to make both Native Americans and Africans enemies. They worked together, lived together in communal quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and legends, and in the end they intermarried.
In the 18th century, many Native American women married freed or runaway African men due to a decrease in the population of men in Native American villages. While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and slaves, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died. In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, buying African American slaves, especially the Cherokee , Choctaw , and Creek.
In the Census, nearly 3 million people indicated that their race was Native American including Alaska Native. This phenomenon has been dubbed the " Cherokee Syndrome ". Some tribes particularly some in the Eastern United States are primarily made up of individuals with an unambiguous Native American identity , despite having a large number of mixed race citizens with prominent non-Native ancestry.
Historically, numerous Native Americans assimilated into colonial and later American society , e. In many cases, this process occurred through forced assimilation of children sent off to special boarding schools far from their families. Those who could pass for white had the advantage of white privilege. Native Americans are more likely than any other racial group to practice interracial marriage , resulting in an ever-declining proportion of indigenous blood among those who claim a Native American identity.
Disenrollment has become a contentious issue in Native American reservation politics. Intertribal mixing was common among many Native American tribes prior to European contact, as they would adopt captives taken in warfare. Individuals often had ancestry from more than one tribe, particularly after tribes lost so many members from disease in the colonial era and after.
A number of tribes traditionally adopted captives into their group to replace members who had been captured or killed in battle.
Such captives were from rival tribes and later were taken from raids on European settlements. Some tribes also sheltered or adopted white traders and runaway slaves, and others owned slaves of their own.
Tribes with long trading histories with Europeans show a higher rate of European admixture, reflecting years of intermarriage between Native American women and European men, often seen as advantageous to both sides. In recent years, genetic genealogists have been able to determine the proportion of Native American ancestry carried by the African-American population. The literary and history scholar Henry Louis Gates, Jr. A greater percentage could have a smaller proportion of Indian ancestry, but their conclusions show that popular estimates of Native American admixture may have been too high.
DNA testing is not sufficient to qualify a person for specific tribal membership, as it cannot distinguish among Native American tribes; however some tribes such as the Meskwaki Nation require a DNA test in order to enroll in the tribe.
Most DNA testing examines few lineages that comprise a minuscule percentage of one's total ancestry, approximately less than 1 percent of total DNA. Every human being has about one thousand ancestors going back ten generations. For example, a genetic male could have a maternal grandfather from whom he did not inherit his Y chromosome and a paternal grandmother from whom he did not inherit his mtDNA who were descended from Native American founders, but mtDNA and Y-chromosome analyses would not detect them.
Native American identity has historically been based on culture, not just biology, as many American Indian peoples adopted captives from their enemies and assimilated them into their tribes. While they occur more frequently among Native Americans, they are also found in people in other parts of the world. Not all Native Americans have been tested; especially with the large number of deaths due to disease such as smallpox , it is unlikely that Native Americans only have the genetic markers they have identified [so far], even when their maternal or paternal bloodline does not include a [known] non-Native American.
To receive tribal services, a Native American must be a certified or enrolled member of a federally recognized tribal organization. Each tribal government makes its own rules for eligibility of citizens or tribal members. Among tribes, qualification for enrollment may be based upon a required percentage of Native American "blood" or the " blood quantum " of an individual seeking recognition, or documented descent from an ancestor on the Dawes Rolls or other registers.
But, the federal government has its own standards related to who qualifies for services available to certified Native Americans. For instance, federal scholarships for Native Americans require the student both to be enrolled in a federally recognized tribe and to be of at least one-quarter Native American descent equivalent to one grandparent , attested to by a Certificate of Degree of Indian Blood CDIB card issued by the federal government.
Some tribes have begun requiring genealogical DNA testing of individuals' applying for membership, but this is usually related to an individual's proving parentage or direct descent from a certified member. The Cherokee require documented direct genealogical descent from a Native American listed on the early Dawes Rolls.
Tribal rules regarding recognition of members who have heritage from multiple tribes are equally diverse and complex. Federally recognized tribes do not accept genetic-ancestry results as appropriate documentation for enrollment and do not advise applicants to submit such documentation.
Tribal membership conflicts have led to a number of legal disputes, court cases, and the formation of activist groups. One example of this are the Cherokee Freedmen. Today, they include descendants of African Americans once enslaved by the Cherokees, who were granted, by federal treaty, citizenship in the historic Cherokee Nation as freedmen after the Civil War.
The modern Cherokee Nation , in the early s, passed a law to require that all members must prove descent from a Cherokee Native American not Cherokee Freedmen listed on the Dawes Rolls, resulting in the exclusion of some individuals and families who had been active in Cherokee culture for years.
Since the United States Census , people may identify as being of more than one race. Sociologists attribute this dramatic change to "ethnic shifting" or "ethnic shopping"; they believe that it reflects a willingness of people to question their birth identities and adopt new ethnicities which they find more compatible.
The reaction from lifelong Indians runs the gamut. It is easy to find Native Americans who denounce many of these new Indians as members of the wannabe tribe. But it is also easy to find Indians like Clem Iron Wing, an elder among the Lakota , who sees this flood of new ethnic claims as magnificent, a surge of Indians 'trying to come home. The journalist Mary Annette Pember notes that identifying with Native American culture may be a result of a person's increased interest in genealogy , the romanticization of the lifestyle, and a family tradition of Native American ancestors in the distant past.
There are different issues if a person wants to pursue enrollment as a member of a tribe. Pember concludes:. The subjects of genuine American Indian blood, cultural connection and recognition by the community are extremely contentious issues, hotly debated throughout Indian country and beyond.
The whole situation, some say, is ripe for misinterpretation, confusion and, ultimately, exploitation. The genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas primarily focuses on human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups and human mitochondrial DNA haplogroups. Neither recombines , and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material. All five haplogroups have been identified by researchers as "prehistoric Native North American samples," and it is commonly asserted that the majority of living Native Americans possess one of the common five mtDNA haplogroup markers.
The genetic pattern indicates Indigenous Americans experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the Americas, and secondly with European colonization of the Americas. Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the Bering sea coast line , with an initial 15, to 20,year layover on Beringia for the small founding population.
Scientists suggest that the main ancestor of the Ainu and of some Native American groups can be traced back to Paleolithic groups in Southern Siberia.
North America. South America. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Indigenous peoples of the United States except Hawaii. Percent of population with indigenous ancestry by U. Political movements. Ethnic subdivisions. English American English Native American languages.
Neighborhoods Societal statistics Reservations Tribal disenrollment Reservation poverty. Main articles: Paleo-Indians and Settlement of the Americas. Main article: Pre-Columbian era. Main article: Lithic stage. Main article: Archaic period in the Americas. Main articles: Age of Discovery and European colonization of the Americas. Main article: Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas.
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Thanks for your advice and your help CJ. This forum has saved me some frustration. I guess you are right; it might be the power jack problem. I took apart my laptop and cleaned the heat sink reapplied the thermal grease.
Worked perfectly. I reassembled everything works except one. Is it possible that hte battery is dead or is it just not making conductive contact with the motherboard to charge it? Moose, That is very strange. Taking apart the computer and cleaning the heatsink had been a conduit for more problems. Perhaps I might have damaged a part? I tried resoldering but the problem remained. My conclusion is that the excessive shorts caused by the overheating had damaged a few of the components other than the DC Jack on the motherboard.
If all three lights are green, it means your battery should charge and is recognized by the motherboard. My first guess is just a short on the board itself.
Did your laptop overheat and restart often before you cleaned out the heatsink? Hi, i have Toshiba AS P4 laptop. I hate my Toshiba satellite A70….. We had so many laptops but we are very dissatisfied with our Toshiba.
Jeff, It is very possible that the laptop overheats. You can try a very simple solution first. Clean the heat sink with compressed air. Blow inside the openings on the bottom of the laptop until the dust stop coming from the openings on the side.
Test the laptop after you cleaned the heat sink. Same kind of lag thing can happen with Dells when the heatsink is clogged. The machine would stall after some h of work. I tried cleaning the heatsink, throttling the CPU, no dice. I then noticed that the hard drive was making funny noises when the computer had stalled.
May have been hard drive overheating. Just in case your box behaves similarly, may be worth a try…. Michael, You are right. If you hear a funny clicking or grinding sound from your laptop when it stalls, then most likely the hard drive is bad and must be replaced. I had similar problems with my P35 S overheating.
Hi, I have a toshiba satellite AS which according to the gig sqpuads the memory that come with this computer MB is bad.
But they told me that this memory can not be replace. It is true? Luis, Toshiba Satellite A65 has a memory integrated into the system board. You cannot replace or re-solder it yourself. If onboard memory is bad, the entire system board must be replaced. I just used your instructions to get at and clean out the heatsink on my P35 truth be told, my boyfrind did the work — I just hovered like an expectant father.
It worked like a charm! I got this laptop A70 Satellite for a year already. At first I was able to do a lot thing with it, playing games, burning, encoding, etc, without lock-up. Then trouble starts after 2 or 3 months. I did so googling and found this site and how to dismantle the laptop. I was hesitating to dismantle it since everytime I touch computer part, sometime I broke something hehe.
Anyway I gave it a try, removed everyting except the CPU, cleaned the 2 fans and the damn so clogged heatsink. Crossed my fingers and prayed, everything went good since it boot normally and now I can do encoding and playing without lockup.
It has built in on board, its a 4 chips on it. Yep, it looks like the memory is bad. Unfortunately you cannot disabled it and I doubt that you can replace it yourself. The only solution — to replace the motherboard. Can you please provide detailed instructions with picture.. My computer is getting overheated and I am not able to play any movie files as the computer automatical shuts down..
I wonder what the problems is. I did it! It was easy but took 2 hours of my day. Last week I both a apple macbook computer beacause my sattelite used to shut down after 10 minutes. I was screwed again beacause my sound card is not yet compatible with the macbook.
Today I decided to open my sattelite a! Can anybody file a class action suit against Toshiba. Same overheating problem. Hi cj, Is the disassembly for A65 same as other toshiba? Thank god that worked, mine used to boot out of nothing like once an hour. It turns out the heat sink was filled with dust, literally filled. Works greats now, the fan rarely turns on. After one year of getting frustrated while my laptop would randomly shut down, I found your website from google.
I hestiantly dis-asembled my cpu, but it actually was not that bad. What I found looked just like the pictures above. I cleaned it out, and now my laptop works just like new. I would recommend this procedure to anybody that is having similar problems with their Toshiba laptop.
It works! Just be sure to save all of the different screws when you take the cpu apart!! I have had so many problems with my toshiba a75 laptop so I called toshiba myself and found that there is a class action law suit against the a75 laptops.
Good Luck!! It looks like that the battery charges when the laptop is turned off. As soon as you turn on the laptop, the laptop starts running on the battery power. The battery lasts for about 2 hours and then the laptop shuts down. I would try to upgrade the BIOS to the latest version. At this time it is version 2. Try to remove the battery, connect the AC adapter and start the laptop.
Does it start at all when the battery is removed? When you turn on the laptop, does the fan start spinning? Can you here it at all? Laptop overheating is a very common issue. Oh my God I travel all over the world with my laptop and could not figure out why it was shutting down. I had more dust than that pic you have posted and I keep my computer clean in a case. Thanks so much for the advise.
Cheers from S. It really depends. Usually the life of the battery is around years, depending on how you really used it. The optimized usage of the battery is fully charging it and discharging it from time to time.
I advice you check the support website of toshiba, which is support. Also, try to download and install the latest bios update for your laptop because that could solve the issue. Very good!! This is the best site ive ever seen… I own a Satallite AS I just thought it was my electrifying personality.. After about 11 months it started overheating all the time and shutting down… Now the power cord works intermittantly..
I Have to wiggle it to get it charge … All three of these issues were addressed at this site… Thank you, Thank you, Thank you.. I have a AS,and at first it would shut off by itself. As time goes on, it would turn on for 3 seconds and then turn back off. Now it wont turn on at all. I would have to apply pressure at the bottom between the battery and memory card cover in order to have the green light to come, but that dont work any more.
I have took it apart and cleaned out the heatsink which had dust clogs in it. But still no green light. What gives. Thank you George, That is a nice guide and very clear pictures.
Let me ad one little detail. I would suggest the following steps. After that unlock the CPU socket on the motherboard there is a screw-lock on the side , align the CPU and place it back inside the socket and lock the socket. You can clean old thermal grease and apply new grease. I have a toshiba m35x. I used the instructions to crack it open and look at the cpu.. Thank you for the info cj, I will make the changes according to how you described the procedure in a couple of days.
This was a really helpful guide, thank you. I own a Satellite A75 S What do you think is the problem, and do you think my documents and files will be lost because of this? One of our customers has a cat and she brings her laptop for cleaning every three-four months. May be here cat sleeps on the laptop? Angie, Your laptop is completely dead?
I think that you still should be able turn on the laptop even though one fan not working. Hi cj! Do you have any idea why this happened? The only problem I encountered with the laptop, like everyone else, is the shutdown problem when the laptop overheats.
It could be a dead memory, dead CPU or something else. Try to remove the battery and start the laptop just using the AC power.
If you have an extra memory module, try to remove it and turn on the laptop. The color on this looks off, probably from oxidation or something like that. My question is: should I replace this part?
Could this discoloration be a compromise to my cooling system? Could you give a Model for a replacement LCD screen for me? Fadi, It is not necessary to replace the heatsink, just clean up the surface that contacts the CPU. There are also three Sharp screens, but they require a special insulator. Here are part numbers for the screen: P, P, P What can be the problem. TRE2K3, Apparently, the systemboard is bad. In this model the battery connects directly to the systemboard, the power switch is located on the systemboard and the memory is integrated into the system board.
The line seems to coorespond to the warmest part of the base and the bottom of the screen frame is warmest at that time. The line is about the thickness of a thread. John, It might be the LCD screen problem.
There is no way to troubleshoot it, until you connect a test LCD screen and check if it fixes the problem. Thanks, cj I was hoping someone might say that. The LCD solution seems right. At worst right now it is only annoying. CJ, I took your solution and went to my local computer store and picked up Ceramique an Arctic Silver product.
Could I have damaged my processor? I noticed that when I cleaned the surface of my CPU isopropyl alcohol it seemed just a tad discolored at the center, whereas around it there was a nice, mirror finish. I opened the panel and ran my computer again. The brass directly in contact with the CPU is hot, but the heatsink out where the fan blows air is cool. Thanks again, CJ.
I think my Toshiba M45 Satellite is overheating. It freezes after a minute of the computer being on every single time. I am planning on getting compressed air to clean out the fans. If that does not work, is there a tutorial on how to apply artic gel, or to remove the fan to celean out more?
I do it myself each time I have to reapply thermal grease on a CPU. Does the fan spin all the time or it starts only on the laptop start up? If the CPU is so hot, the fan should run at least once in a while. Just yesterday I had to repair a similar problem on Toshiba Satellite A The laptop shut down after minutes being on. The heatsink was very hot and the laptop shut down. Apparently, the circuit that turns on the fan when the CPU is hot was bad and the problem was fixed after I replaced the board.
Another laptop with a similar problem I fixed about 3 days ago. Fixed the laptop by replacing the fan. So, check for fans. Arctic Silver makes a good stuff and by the description they provide, Ceramique thermal compound is a good one.
I was watching a power point file and it just repently started going very slow, so I restarted it and it was doing the same thing, and restarted it again, but it never did.
I thought is was a virus, so I took out the hard drive and connect it to my desktop, but it runs perfect and no virus found. Then I thought it could be overheating and I cleaned it as the procedure you show in the website, it stills the same.
One particular thing is that the time never change, not even in the BIOS. Any advice???? Could the battery of the BIOS be causing this??? My fan seems to be doing fine. It starts up about thirty seconds into startup, and it blows at full speed.
No odd sounds or anything. I would definitely test the hard drive. You can use Hitachi Drive Fitness test. If it passes the test, I would back up all important data from the hard drive and then run a Toshiba recovery DVD to take it back to factory defaults. It might be a software problem. Thanks for your advice CJ, I actually did that already, talking about the buckup my important information….
Thanks for your help. It would be. You follow this wizard to create a bootable floppy disk. I think that for Satellite A75 you can create only a bootable floppy disk, not sure though. After that you will have to boot the laptop from a USB floppy drive and finish it up.
After you reboot the laptop you should have new version of BIOS. When you upgrade the BIOS, you should run the laptop from AC adapter power, because if the battery is not charged and it dies during the upgrade you might have a problem.
Hi, I have an AS laptop and it overheats after 10 minutes and turns off. It started this about 2 months ago and would only shut down after about 1 or 2 hours of being on.
Do you think this is a dirty heatsink problem. If so in your dissasembly instructions the last two steps are removing the CPU. Will i have to remove the CPU to clean the heatsink. Thank so much for the site. I will be donating by paypal!
Most likely just cleaning the heatsink would be enough to fix overheating. Also, check if fan spins when you turn on the laptop. It should start spinning right away after you turn it on.
In some cases laptop overheats because of a dead cooling fan. BTW, I like your idea with paypal. A couple of last questions c. Where should I look for the dust. Also what email adress should I send the donation through paypal. Man you are a life saver.
I followed the instructions and man was that thing dirty. It was like a big ball of lent over both openings to the fan. I used a shop vac to get the dirt out then I followed the instructions and applied Artic Silver to the cpu.
Ive had my laptop running for at least 2 hours now and its as cool as can be and doesnt shut off. I hope a 5 spot will due for a donation until I get paid. Again thanks so much I will tell all my friends about this place! Hi there, I tried the idea above of vacuming out the vents from my Toshiba laptop, as my lap top too was shutting itself off everytime i tried to play a game or watch a dvd, and it had neever done this until now.
No shutdown! I advise anyone with the same problem with any kind of laptop to try the same. Great tip thanks alot, saved having to take it to a pc store to get it sorted. What can I use to keep the fans from spinning that is non-conductive?
We had an overheating problem with our A Now, the computer boots up, however the fans are not running. If you could help address the fan problem first I would be most grateful. Any any ideas on the display problem would be much appreciated also. Judy, I am not an expert but when you took apart the computer and unhooked the display cable there was another black wire secured by a screw.
This is a ground make sure you hooked it back up properly. And about the fans cj will probably know the answer to that and the display problem. Just thought i might add a little advice! If you experience the same problem as I described in the post, try to blow off the fan first. I usually take the fan out and block fans with my fingers. Judy, Did you plug fan cables back into the system board?
In Satellite A75 there is no way to plug them back without taking the laptop apart. Satellite A75 fan has 2 fans and 2 connectors. May be you plugged in only one of them?
When you turn on the laptop, both fans have to start spinning. You can see fans through the grill on the bottom. Do they spin at all? It has to be secured by F3 screw located under the keyboard. I have an AS Is there anything else I will need to do ie. Thanks cj. No drivers needed. Whe I go to properties of my PC running is safe mode is really wird that the speed of my procesor is showing as I think the procesor could be damaged.
Any ideas?? I would really apreciate it. Still on the fritz, and my fan looks like its working just fine. Here are a couple guesses. Wrong thermal grease. I would contact the manufacturer and ask them if you can use the grease with your CPU.
Usually fans spin at different speeds. May be your fan works only at slow speed. The fan is controlled by the motherboard. The heatsink is not seated properly and there is a gap between the heatsink and the CPU surface. Just kidding.
What speed does it show? As soon as you turn on the laptop, pres on ESC key. The laptop will continue to boot with details on the screen. You should be able to see the CPU speed.
If the screen flashes too fast, you can pres on Pause key. What CPU speed you see? My laptop toshiba as, will not power on from ac or battery. So I think power manager chip is dead? Toshiba Guy, If Satellite A75 will not boot from a good AC adapter of from a good charged battery, then I would say something is wrong with the systemboard. Not sure about power manager chip, I do not repair motherboards on component level.
Do you get any LED activity at all? What are your symptoms? Do you hear any sounds? Have you tried to reload Windows at all?
Should I trhow it away already?? Do you know where to get a restore cd for a satellite AS I cant find it on ebay and I have lost mine.
Call Toshiba customer service line at and ask them if they can sell you one. You can see them through the grill on the bottom of the laptop. If both fans spin and they are not noisy, wait with the replacement, try cleaning the heatsink first. A powerful air compressor would be a better option.
Thanks guys. I will follow your advise and focus on cleaning the heatsink and get back to you on the results. I have a AS model and I had the same problem described here laptop is on for mins and turns off without warning.
I already cleaned the heatsink and the fan and assembled back the laptop. I tried everything including disassembling and assembling again but it did not work.
I did not bother putting any coz I thought it was just dust. What do I need to put in there? Joseph, Yep, this gray stuff on the top of the CPU is thermal grease and before you assemble the laptop back, you must apply new layer of the grease because the old one is already removed.
If you run the laptop without thermal grease, it will overheat and shut down. You can buy thermal grease in any local computer store or buy it online. When you assemble the laptop, make sure that both fan connectors are plugged into the system board. So I ordered a new hinge and put the computer back together in the meanwhile.
Of course, the computer overheated. So I went out and bought Ceramique thermal paste, and followed their online directions. The first time the computer overheated, the fans were on full blast for a while. It overheated within I believe 30 minutes or so. All of a sudden, the fans went on full blast and the computer shut down. From the fans turning on to the computer shutting down was really quick, within seconds…any ideas what to look for?
I decided to retry applying the ceramique paste. I bought acetone, and thouroughly cleaned the heat sink and the CPU. So this time, I cleaned both parts really well, and followed the ceramique instructions very carefully. The computer is still overheating. I believe it should be in the range, correct? I called Arctic Silver, and their very helpful tech instructed me that some laptops require a thermal pad for the heat sink to make good contact to the CPU.
I called Toshiba, and their not so helpful tech stated that according to his specs, Toshiba uses pink silicon grease, not a thermal pad.
According to Toshiba specifications, Toshiba Satellite A45 requires a pink grease. I would probably try using the grease recommended by Toshiba. I was very surprised that with Arctic Silver grease my desktop ran 10 degree C hotter then with grease that I got with the heatsink. Since then I use grease that came with the heatsink. From your knowledge, is there anything special about this grease? Do you know if Compusa sells anything that I can try?
When we were out of pink grease, we used just whatever we had in stock, some kind of generic white grease. Let me know how it goes. What else should I be looking for? Do you know the version of the laptop BIOS? Version 1. Are you sure that laptop shuts down because it overheats? Also, I downloaded a freeware called Speed Fan or something like that, and it shows temps idling in the 60C range, and then when I do something like watch a DVD, it creeps up.
When it hits around 82C, the PC shuts down. I think you should sell the laptop to somebody who lives in Alaska; at least they can use it as a heater. Can you see if both fans spin? I have a TE and I have this overheating problem too. Do you know where I can get the Toshiba pink grease cheaply? I live in Singapore. Apply just a small drop, just barely enough to cover the CPU surface after you spread it. It had a overheating issue.
Blowed the dust seems to fix that. The lines are kind of cm long. I tested the graphic card with a external LCD.. No Lines apear ever. So I opened the top lid that coved the connector of LCD to the motherbord. Tapping that connector seems to remove the problem temporarly. Is there a way to fix this issue? Replacing the video card? Is symptom of cold wirring? CJ, Thanks for the help, I did finally get the computer to work.
I had ordered a new hinge, and figured that I might as well fix the hinge and worry about the overheating later. So I fixed the hinge using your wonderful tutorial thanks man! I cleaned the heat sink and CPU again, this time for like a solid half hour.
Yes you can change the Processor from an Celeron to a P4. Now the bad part. You must take the computer apart to gain access to the processor and remove fans, heatsink and processor.
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