Continental philosophy. He was regarded as one of the finest riders among his fellow recruits, and his officers predicted that he would soon reach the rank of captain. Nietzsche objects to Euripides' use of Socratic rationalism and morality in his tragedies, claiming that the infusion of ethics and reason robs tragedy of its foundation, namely the fragile balance of the Dionysian and Apollonian. Transaction Publishers. Please be patient with our shipping partners as we all do the best we can to get to get through this together!

By denying the inherent inequality of people—in success, strength, beauty, and intelligence—slaves acquired a method of escape, namely by generating new values on the basis of rejecting master morality, which frustrated them. It was used to overcome the slave's sense of inferiority before their better-off masters. It does so by making out slave weakness, for example, to be a matter of choice, by relabeling it as "meekness". The "good man" of master morality is precisely the "evil man" of slave morality, while the "bad man" is recast as the "good man".

Nietzsche saw slave morality as a source of the nihilism that has overtaken Europe. Modern Europe and Christianity exist in a hypocritical state due to a tension between master and slave morality, both contradictory values determining, to varying degrees, the values of most Europeans who are " motley ". Nietzsche called for exceptional people not to be ashamed in the face of a supposed morality-for-all, which he deems to be harmful to the flourishing of exceptional people.

He cautioned, however, that morality, per se, is not bad; it is good for the masses and should be left to them. Exceptional people, on the other hand, should follow their own "inner law".

A long-standing assumption about Nietzsche is that he preferred master over slave morality. However, eminent Nietzsche scholar Walter Kaufmann rejected this interpretation, writing that Nietzsche's analyses of these two types of morality were used only in a descriptive and historic sense; they were not meant for any kind of acceptance or glorification.

In Daybreak , Nietzsche began his "Campaign against Morality". Nietzsche's concept " God is dead " applies to the doctrines of Christendom , though not to all other faiths: he claimed that Buddhism is a successful religion that he complimented for fostering critical thought. Art as the single superior counterforce against all will to negation of life, art as the anti-Christian, anti-Buddhist, anti-Nihilist par excellence. Nietzsche claimed that the Christian faith as practiced was not a proper representation of Jesus' teachings, as it forced people merely to believe in the way of Jesus but not to act as Jesus did; in particular, his example of refusing to judge people, something that Christians constantly did.

Christianity is called the religion of pity. Pity stands opposed to the tonic emotions which heighten our vitality: it has a depressing effect. We are deprived of strength when we feel pity. That loss of strength in which suffering as such inflicts on life is still further increased and multiplied by pity.

Pity makes suffering contagious. In Ecce Homo Nietzsche called the establishment of moral systems based on a dichotomy of good and evil a "calamitous error", [] and wished to initiate a re-evaluation of the values of the Christian world.

While Nietzsche attacked the principles of Judaism, he was not antisemitic : in his work On the Genealogy of Morality , he explicitly condemned antisemitism and pointed out that his attack on Judaism was not an attack on contemporary Jewish people but specifically an attack upon the ancient Jewish priesthood who he claimed antisemitic Christians paradoxically based their views upon. Nietzsche felt that modern antisemitism was "despicable" and contrary to European ideals.

The statement " God is dead ," occurring in several of Nietzsche's works notably in The Gay Science , has become one of his best-known remarks. On the basis of it, many commentators [] regard Nietzsche as an atheist ; others such as Kaufmann suggest that this statement reflects a more subtle understanding of divinity.

Scientific developments and the increasing secularization of Europe had effectively 'killed' the Abrahamic God, who had served as the basis for meaning and value in the West for more than a thousand years. The death of God may lead beyond bare perspectivism to outright nihilism , the belief that nothing has any inherent importance and that life lacks purpose.

Nietzsche believed that Christian moral doctrine provides people with intrinsic value , belief in God which justifies the evil in the world , and a basis for objective knowledge. In constructing a world where objective knowledge is possible, Christianity is an antidote to a primal form of nihilism—the despair of meaninglessness.

As Heidegger put the problem, "If God as the supra sensory ground and goal of all reality is dead if the supra sensory world of the ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory and above it its vitalizing and upbuilding power, then nothing more remains to which man can cling and by which he can orient himself. One such reaction to the loss of meaning is what Nietzsche called passive nihilism, which he recognized in the pessimistic philosophy of Schopenhauer.

Schopenhauer's doctrine—which Nietzsche also referred to as Western Buddhism —advocates separating oneself from will and desires to reduce suffering. Nietzsche characterized this ascetic attitude as a "will to nothingness". Life turns away from itself as there is nothing of value to be found in the world.

This moving away of all value in the world is characteristic of the nihilist, although, in this, the nihilist appears to be inconsistent; this "will to nothingness" is still a disavowed form of willing.

A nihilist is a man who judges that the real world ought not to be and that the world as it ought to do not exist. According to this view, our existence action, suffering , willing, feeling has no meaning: this 'in vain' is the nihilists' pathos—an inconsistency on the part of the nihilists. Nietzsche approached the problem of nihilism as a deeply personal one, stating that this problem of the modern world had "become conscious" in him.

I believe it is one of the greatest crises, a moment of the deepest self-reflection of humanity. Whether man recovers from it, whether he becomes a master of this crisis, is a question of his strength! He wished to hasten its coming only so that he could also hasten its ultimate departure. Heidegger interpreted the death of God with what he explained as the death of metaphysics. He concluded that metaphysics has reached its potential and that the ultimate fate and downfall of metaphysics was proclaimed with the statement "God is dead.

A basic element in Nietzsche's philosophical outlook is the " will to power " der Wille zur Macht , which he maintained provides a basis for understanding human behavior—more so than competing explanations, such as the ones based on pressure for adaptation or survival.

In presenting his theory of human behavior, Nietzsche also addressed and attacked concepts from philosophies then popularly embraced, such as Schopenhauer's notion of an aimless will or that of utilitarianism. Utilitarians claim that what moves people is the desire to be happy and accumulate pleasure in their lives. But such a conception of happiness Nietzsche rejected as something limited to, and characteristic of, the bourgeois lifestyle of the English society, [] and instead put forth the idea that happiness is not an aim per se.

It is a consequence of overcoming hurdles to one's actions and the fulfillment of the will. Related to his theory of the will to power is his speculation, which he did not deem final, [] regarding the reality of the physical world, including inorganic matter—that, like man's affections and impulses, the material world is also set by the dynamics of a form of the will to power.

At the core of his theory is a rejection of atomism —the idea that matter is composed of stable, indivisible units atoms. Likewise, he rejected the view that the movement of bodies is ruled by inexorable laws of nature, positing instead that movement was governed by the power relations between bodies and forces.

Other than Aphorism 36 in Beyond Good and Evil, where he raised a question regarding will to power as being in the material world, they argue, it was only in his notes unpublished by himself , where he wrote about a metaphysical will to power. And they also claim that Nietzsche directed his landlord to burn those notes in when he left Sils Maria. However, a recent study Huang shows that although it is true that in Nietzsche wanted some of his notes burned, the 'burning' story indicates little about his project on the will to power, not only because only 11 'aphorisms' saved from the flames were ultimately incorporated into The Will to Power this book contains 'aphorisms' , but also because these abandoned notes mainly focus on topics such as the critique of morality while touching upon the 'feeling of power' only once.

It is a purely physical concept, involving no supernatural reincarnation , but the return of beings in the same bodies. Nietzsche first proposed the idea of eternal return in a parable in Section of The Gay Science , and also in the chapter "Of the Vision and the Riddle" in Thus Spoke Zarathustra , among other places.

To comprehend eternal recurrence, and to not only come to peace with it but to embrace it, requires amor fati , "love of fate". According to Heidegger, it is the burden imposed by the question of eternal recurrence—whether it could possibly be true—that is so significant in modern thought: "The way Nietzsche here patterns the first communication of the thought of the 'greatest burden' [of eternal recurrence] makes it clear that this 'thought of thoughts' is at the same time 'the most burdensome thought.

Nietzsche suggests that the universe is recurring over infinite time and space and that different versions of events that have occurred in the past may take place again, hence "all configurations that have previously existed on this earth must yet meet".

Alexander Nehamas writes in Nietzsche: Life as Literature of three ways of seeing the eternal recurrence:. Nehamas concluded that, if individuals constitute themselves through their actions, they can only maintain themselves in their current state by living in a recurrence of past actions Nehamas, Nietzsche's thought is the negation of the idea of a history of salvation. Zarathustra's gift of the overman is given to mankind not aware of the problem to which the overman is the solution.

The overman does not follow the morality of common people since that favors mediocrity but rises above the notion of good and evil and above the " herd ". He wants a kind of spiritual evolution of self-awareness and overcoming of traditional views on morality and justice that stem from the superstition beliefs still deeply rooted or related to the notion of God and Christianity.

I teach you the overman. Man is something that shall be overcome. What have you done to overcome him? All beings so far have created something beyond themselves; and do you want to be the ebb of this great flood, and even go back to the beasts rather than overcome man?

What is ape to man? A laughing stock or painful embarrassment. And man shall be that to overman: a laughing stock or painful embarrassment.

You have made your way from worm to man, and much in you is still worm. Once you were apes, and even now, too, man is more ape than any ape The overman is the meaning of the earth. Let you will say: the overman shall be the meaning of the earth Man is a rope, tied between beast and overman—a rope over an abyss Zarathustra contrasts the overman with the last man of egalitarian modernity the most obvious example being democracy , an alternative goal humanity might set for itself.

The last man is possible only by mankind's having bred an apathetic creature who has no great passion or commitment, who is unable to dream, who merely earns his living and keeps warm. This concept appears only in Thus Spoke Zarathustra , and is presented as a condition that would render the creation of the overman impossible.

Some [] have suggested that the eternal return is related to the overman, since willing the eternal return of the same is a necessary step if the overman is to create new values untainted by the spirit of gravity or asceticism. Values involve a rank-ordering of things, and so are inseparable from approval and disapproval, yet it was dissatisfaction that prompted men to seek refuge in other-worldliness and embrace other-worldly values.

It could seem that the overman, in being devoted to any values at all, would necessarily fail to create values that did not share some bit of asceticism. Willing the eternal recurrence is presented as accepting the existence of the low while still recognizing it as the low, and thus as overcoming the spirit of gravity or asceticism.

One must have the strength of the overman to will the eternal recurrence. Only the overman will have the strength to fully accept all of his past life, including his failures and misdeeds, and to truly will their eternal return. This action nearly kills Zarathustra, for example, and most human beings cannot avoid other-worldliness because they really are sick, not because of any choice they made.

The Nazis tried to incorporate the concept into their ideology. She reworked Nietzsche's unpublished writings to fit her own German nationalist ideology while often contradicting or obfuscating Nietzsche's stated opinions, which were explicitly opposed to antisemitism and nationalism.

Through her published editions, Nietzsche's work became associated with fascism and Nazism ; [46] 20th-century scholars contested this interpretation of his work and corrected editions of his writings were soon made available. Although Nietzsche has famously been misrepresented as a predecessor to Nazism, he criticized anti-Semitism, pan-Germanism and, to a lesser extent, nationalism.

Friedrich Nietzsche held a pessimistic view of modern society and culture. He believed the press and mass culture led to conformity, brought about mediocrity, and the lack of intellectual progress was leading to the decline of the human species. In his opinion, some people would be able to become superior individuals through the use of will power.

By rising above mass culture, those persons would produce higher, brighter, and healthier human beings. A trained philologist, Nietzsche had a thorough knowledge of Greek philosophy. He read Kant , Plato , Mill , Schopenhauer and Spir , [] who became the main opponents in his philosophy, and later engaged, via the work of Kuno Fischer in particular, with the thought of Baruch Spinoza , whom he saw as his "precursor" in many respects [] [] but as a personification of the "ascetic ideal" in others.

However, Nietzsche referred to Kant as a "moral fanatic", Plato as "boring", Mill as a "blockhead", and of Spinoza, he asked: "How much of personal timidity and vulnerability does this masquerade of a sickly recluse betray? Nietzsche's philosophy, while innovative and revolutionary, was indebted to many predecessors. While at Basel, Nietzsche lectured on pre-Platonic philosophers for several years, and the text of this lecture series has been characterized as a "lost link" in the development of his thought.

His symbolism of the world as "child play" marked by amoral spontaneity and lack of definite rules was appreciated by Nietzsche. In his Egotism in German Philosophy , Santayana claimed that Nietzsche's whole philosophy was a reaction to Schopenhauer. Santayana wrote that Nietzsche's work was "an emendation of that of Schopenhauer. The will to live would become the will to dominate; pessimism founded on reflection would become optimism founded on courage; the suspense of the will in contemplation would yield to a more biological account of intelligence and taste; finally in the place of pity and asceticism Schopenhauer's two principles of morals Nietzsche would set up the duty of asserting the will at all costs and being cruelly but beautifully strong.

These points of difference from Schopenhauer cover the whole philosophy of Nietzsche. Nietzsche's works did not reach a wide readership during his active writing career.

However, in the influential Danish critic Georg Brandes aroused considerable excitement about Nietzsche through a series of lectures he gave at the University of Copenhagen. In the years after Nietzsche's death in , his works became better known, and readers have responded to them in complex and sometimes controversial ways. He had some following among left-wing Germans in the s; in — German conservatives wanted to ban his work as subversive. During the late 19th century Nietzsche's ideas were commonly associated with anarchist movements and appear to have had influence within them, particularly in France and the United States.

Mencken produced the first book on Nietzsche in English in , The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche , and in a book of translated paragraphs from Nietzsche, increasing knowledge of his philosophy in the United States.

Writer Donald Mitchell noted that Gustav Mahler was "attracted to the poetic fire of Zarathustra, but repelled by the intellectual core of its writings.

Frederick Delius produced a piece of choral music, A Mass of Life , based on a text of Thus Spoke Zarathustra , while Richard Strauss who also based his Also sprach Zarathustra on the same book , was only interested in finishing "another chapter of symphonic autobiography.

Nietzsche was an early influence on the poetry of Rainer Maria Rilke. Painter Giovanni Segantini was fascinated by Thus Spoke Zarathustra , and he drew an illustration for the first Italian translation of the book. By World War I , Nietzsche had acquired a reputation as an inspiration for right-wing German militarism and leftist politics. Gordon [] and Martin Buber , who went so far as to extoll Nietzsche as a "creator" and "emissary of life".

He also shared Nietzsche's view of tragedy. Adorno [] can be seen in the Dialectic of Enlightenment. Adorno summed up Nietzsche's philosophy as expressing the "humane in a world in which humanity has become a sham. Nietzsche's growing prominence suffered a severe setback when his works became closely associated with Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany.

Many political leaders of the twentieth century were at least superficially familiar with Nietzsche's ideas, although it is not always possible to determine whether they actually read his work. It is debated among scholars whether Hitler read Nietzsche, although if he did, it may not have been extensively.

Mussolini , [] [] Charles de Gaulle [] and Huey P. Newton [] read Nietzsche. Richard Nixon read Nietzsche with "curious interest", and his book Beyond Peace might have taken its title from Nietzsche's book Beyond Good and Evil which How To Make A Frame Door 4g Nixon read beforehand. Georges Bataille was also influential in this revival, defending Nietzsche against appropriation by the Nazis with his notable essay "Nietzsche and Fascists".

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. German philosopher. For other uses, see Nietzsche disambiguation. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche. University of Bonn Leipzig University. Main article: Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. Main article: Apollonian and Dionysian. Main article: Perspectivism.

Main article: Master—slave morality. Main articles: God is dead and Nihilism. Main article: Will to power. Main article: Eternal return. Main article: Library of Friedrich Nietzsche.

Main article: Influence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche. Main article: Friedrich Nietzsche bibliography. See also: List of works about Friedrich Nietzsche. Philosophy portal Religion portal Germany portal Biography portal. The topic of "false origins" of ideas is also suggested in "The Four Great Errors" 3, and precisely about morality in such works as The Will to Power , p.

See Jensen and Heit , p. Pippin describes Nietzsche's views in The Persistence of Subjectivity , p. Whitlock, G. Enigma Books. But Hitler's reading and reflection were anything but academic, doubtless, he did read much. However, as was noted in an earlier chapter, he made clear in My Struggle that reading for him had purely an instrumental purpose.

He read not for knowledge or enlightenment, but for confirmation of his own preconceptions. American Political Science Review.

JSTOR Lanier 17 March Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. MIT Press. ISBN Retrieved 29 September In Babich, Babette E. Nietzsche, Epistemology, and Philosophy of Science. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science. Dordrecht: Springer.

Edinburgh University Press. Journal of Nietzsche Studies 17 : 50— JSTOR ? Research in Phenomenology. JSTOR, www. Journal of Nietzsche Studies. S2CID Jensen, Helmut Heit eds. Retrieved 4 January Oxford University Press. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

ISSN Retrieved 9 April Berlin: Die Andere Bibliothek, The Russian Review. University of Illinois Press. The Journal of Individual Psychology. The Modern Language Review. Harlow, UK: Longman. Berlin: Bibliographisches Institut. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. A History of Western Philosophy. New York: Simon and Schuster. Retrieved 6 October Kaufmann and R. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Nietzsche's teaching: an interpretation of Thus spoke Zarathustra. New Haven: Yale University Press. OCLC Friedrich Nietzsche: Herald of a New Era. Hazar Press. Wistrich , eds. Nietzsche, Godfather of Fascism? Stanford News. Stanford News Service. Zalta, Edward N. Friedrich Nietzsche Winter ed. Human, All Too Human. BBC Documentary. Retrieved 16 October — via Columbia College. The Good European: Nietzsche's work sites in word and image. University of Chicago Press, Nietzsche: A Critical Life , p.

Oxford University Press, Yale University Press, The Nietzsche Canon. University of Chicago Press. The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche.

Cambridge University Press. What Nietzsche Really Said. New York: Random House. Archived from the original on 24 November History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences. PMID Nietzsche: A Critical Life. New York: Oxford University Press. Nietzsche as a Scholar of Antiquity. London: Bloomsbury Academic. Nietzsche and Antiquity. Note that some authors incl. Deussen and Montinari mistakenly claim that Nietzsche became a Swiss citizen to become a university professor.

Erinnerungen a Friedrich Nietzsche. Leipzig: F. Journal of Medical Biography. The Legend of Nietzsche's Syphilis. Westwood: Greenwood Press. Nietzsche and the Transcendental Tradition. Project Gutenberg. Also available via Book Rags.

Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography , trans. Journal of Nietzsche Studies — Plett — Schmidseder. Walter de Gruyter. The Nietzsche Channel. Retrieved 27 November Retrieved 25 May The Tico Times Costa Rica.

Friedrich Nietzsche. De Gruyter. Paris: PUF. Retrieved 24 August Wilhelm, Bismarck und alle Antisemiten abgeschafft. Viking Press. Nietzsche Chronicle.

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