Some designs use valves. The air conditioning packs are supplied by this manifold as are other critical airframe systems, such as the anti-ice and hydraulic jet plane explanation machine system. The net thrust F N generated by a turbofan can also be expanded as: [68]. The compressor is powered by the turbine, which extracts energy from the expanding gas passing through it. At the same time that Whittle was working in England, Hans von Ohain was working on a similar design in Jet plane explanation machine. The compressor and the expansion valve are the two components that separate the low side from the high side of the cycle. The cooled system air, still under pressure from the continuous system air flow and the ACM compressor, exits the secondary heat exchanger.

In , Felix de Temple , built a monoplane that flew just a short hop down a hill with the help of a coal fired steam engine. Otto Daimler , in the late 's invented the first gasoline engine. In , American Hiram Maxim tried to power his triple biplane with two coal fired steam engines. It only flew for a few seconds. The early steam engines were powered by heated coal and were generally much too heavy for flight.

American Samuel Langley made a model airplanes that were powered by steam engines. In , he was successful in flying an unmanned airplane with a steam-powered engine, called the Aerodrome. It flew about 1 mile before it ran out of steam. He then tried to build a full sized plane, the Aerodrome A, with a gas powered engine. In , it crashed immediately after being launched from a house boat.

In , the Wright Brothers flew, The Flyer , with a 12 horse power gas powered engine. From , the year of the Wright Brothers first flight, to the late s the gas powered reciprocating internal-combustion engine with a propeller was the sole means used to propel aircraft. It was Frank Whittle , a British pilot, who designed and patented the first turbo jet engine in The Whittle engine first flew successfully in May, This engine featured a multistage compressor, and a combustion chamber, a single stage turbine and a nozzle.

At the same time that Whittle was working in England, Hans von Ohain was working on a similar design in Germany. The first airplane to successfully use a gas turbine engine was the German Heinkel He , in August, It was the world's first turbojet powered flight. It was the XPA experimental aircraft that first flew in October, The basic idea of the turbojet engine is simple.

Air taken in from an opening in the front of the engine is compressed to 3 to 12 times its original pressure in compressor. The resulting hot air is passed through a turbine, which drives the compressor. If the turbine and compressor are efficient, the pressure at the turbine discharge will be nearly twice the atmospheric pressure, and this excess pressure is sent to the nozzle to produce a high-velocity stream of gas which produces a thrust. Substantial increases in thrust can be obtained by employing an afterburner.

It is a second combustion chamber positioned after the turbine and before the nozzle. The afterburner increases the temperature of the gas ahead of the nozzle. The result of this increase in temperature is an increase of about 40 percent in thrust at takeoff and a much larger percentage at high speeds once the plane is in the air. The turbojet engine is a reaction engine. In a reaction engine, expanding gases push hard against the front of the engine. The turbojet sucks in air and compresses or squeezes it.

The gases flow through the turbine and make it spin. These gases bounce back and shoot out of the rear of the exhaust, pushing the plane forward. A turboprop engine is a jet engine attached to a propeller. The turbine at the back is turned by the hot gases, and this turns a shaft that drives the propeller. Some small airliners and transport aircraft are powered by turboprops. Like the turbojet, the turboprop engine consists of a compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine, the air and gas pressure is used to run the turbine, which then creates power to drive the compressor.

Compared with a turbojet engine, the turboprop has better propulsion efficiency at flight speeds below about miles per hour. Modern turboprop engines are equipped with propellers that have a smaller diameter but a larger number of blades for efficient operation at much higher flight speeds. To accommodate the higher flight speeds, the blades are scimitar-shaped with swept-back leading edges at the blade tips. Engines featuring such propellers are called propfans. A turbofan engine has a large fan at the front, which sucks in air.

Most of the air flows around the outside of the engine, making it quieter and giving more thrust at low speeds. Most of today's airliners are powered by turbofans. In a turbojet all the air entering the intake passes through the gas generator, which is composed of the compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine.

Vapor cycle air conditioning is used on most nonturbine aircraft that are equipped with air conditioning. However, it is not a source of pressurizing air as the air cycle system conditioned air is on turbine powered aircraft. The vapor cycle system only cools the cabin. If an aircraft equipped with a vapor cycle air conditioning system is pressurized, it uses one of the sources discussed in the pressurization section above.

Vapor cycle air conditioning is a closed system used solely for the transfer of heat from inside the cabin to outside of the cabin. It can operate on the ground and in flight. Energy can be neither created nor destroyed; however, it can be transformed and moved. This is what occurs during vapor cycle air conditioning. Heat energy is moved from the cabin air into a liquid refrigerant. Due to the additional energy, the liquid changes into a vapor.

The vapor is compressed and becomes very hot. It is removed from the cabin where the very hot vapor refrigerant transfers its heat energy to the outside air. In doing so, the refrigerant cools and condenses back into a liquid. The refrigerant returns to the cabin to repeat the cycle of energy transfer.

Figure In vapor cycle air conditioning, heat is carried from the cabin to the outside air by a refrigerant which changes from a liquid to a vapor and back again. Heat is an expression of energy, typically measured by temperature.

The higher the temperature of a substance, the more energy it contains. Heat always flows from hot to cold These terms express the relative amount of energy present in two substances.

They do not measure the absolute amount of heat present. Without a difference in energy levels, there is no transfer of energy heat. Adding heat to a substance does not always raise its temperature.

When a substance changes state, such as when a liquid changes into a vapor, heat energy is absorbed. This is called latent heat. When a vapor condenses into a liquid, this heat energy is given off.

The temperature of a substance remains constant during its change of state. All energy absorbed or given off, the latent heat, is used for the change process.

Once the change of state is complete, heat added to a substance raises the temperature of the substance. After a substance changes state into a vapor, the rise in temperature of the vapor caused by the addition of still more heat is called superheat. The temperature at which a substance changes from a liquid into a vapor when heat is added is known as its boiling point.

This is the same temperature at which a vapor condenses into a liquid when heat is removed. The boiling point of any substance varies directly with pressure. When pressure on a liquid is increased, its boiling point increases, and when pressure on a liquid is decreased, its boiling point also decreases. More energy is required to overcome the increase in pressure.

It boils at approximately The converse is also true. Water can also boil at a much lower temperature simply by reducing the pressure upon it. Boiling point of water changes as pressure changes. Vapor pressure is the pressure of the vapor that exists above a liquid that is in an enclosed container at any given temperature.

The vapor pressure developed by various substances is unique to each substance. This is because the boiling point of the substance is much lower. The vapor pressure of any substance varies directly with temperature. Vapor cycle air conditioning is a closed system in which a refrigerant is circulated through tubing and a variety of components. The purpose is to remove heat from the aircraft cabin. While circulating, the refrigerant changes state. By manipulating the latent heat required to do so, hot air is replaced with cool air in the aircraft cabin.

To begin, Ra is filtered and stored under pressure in a reservoir known as a receiver dryer. The refrigerant is in liquid form. It flows from the receiver dryer through tubing to an expansion valve. Inside the valve, a restriction in the form of a small orifice blocks most of the refrigerant. Since it is under pressure, some of the refrigerant is forced through the orifice.

It emerges as a spray of tiny droplets in the tubing downstream Jet Wood Planer Machine 2021 of the valve. The tubing is coiled into a radiator type assembly known as an evaporator. A fan is positioned to blow cabin air over the surface of the evaporator. As it does, the heat in the cabin air is absorbed by the refrigerant, which uses it to change state from a liquid to a vapor.

So much heat is absorbed that the cabin air blown by the fan across the evaporator cools significantly. This is the vapor cycle conditioned air that lowers the temperature in the cabin.

The gaseous refrigerant exiting the evaporator is drawn into a compressor. There, the pressure and the temperature of the refrigerant are increased. The high-pressure high-temperature gaseous refrigerant flows through tubing to a condenser. The condenser is like a radiator comprised of a great length of tubing with fins attached to promote heat transfer. Outside air is directed over the condenser. The temperature of the refrigerant inside is higher than the ambient air temperature, so heat is transferred from the refrigerant to the outside air.

A fuselage is a long, thin body, usually with tapered or rounded ends to make its shape aerodynamically smooth. The fuselage may contain the flight crew , passengers, cargo or payload , fuel and engines.

The pilots of manned aircraft operate them from a cockpit located at the front or top of the fuselage and equipped with controls and usually windows and instruments. A plane may have more than one fuselage, or it may be fitted with booms with the tail located between the booms to allow the extreme rear of the fuselage to be useful for a variety of purposes. A flying wing is a tailless aircraft which has no definite fuselage , with most of the crew, payload and equipment being housed inside the main wing structure.

The flying wing configuration was studied extensively in the s and s, notably by Jack Northrop and Cheston L. After the war, a number of experimental designs were based on the flying wing concept. Some general interest continued until the early s, but designs did not necessarily offer a great advantage in range and presented a number of technical problems, leading to the adoption of "conventional" solutions like the Convair B and the B Stratofortress.

Due to the practical need for a deep wing, the flying wing concept is most practical for designs in the slow-to-medium speed range, and there has been continual interest in using it as a tactical airlifter design.

Interest in flying wings was renewed in the s due to their potentially low radar reflection cross-sections. Stealth technology relies on shapes which only reflect radar waves in certain directions, thus making the aircraft hard to detect unless the radar receiver is at a specific position relative to the aircraft — a position that changes continuously as the aircraft moves.

This approach eventually led to the Northrop B-2 Spirit stealth bomber. In this case the aerodynamic advantages of the flying wing are not the primary needs. However, modern computer-controlled fly-by-wire systems allowed for many of the aerodynamic drawbacks of the flying wing to be minimized, making for an efficient and stable long-range bomber. Blended wing body aircraft have a flattened and airfoil shaped body, which produces most of the lift to keep itself aloft, and distinct and separate wing structures, though the wings are smoothly blended in with the body.

Thus blended wing bodied aircraft incorporate design features from both a futuristic fuselage and flying wing design. The purported advantages of the blended wing body approach are efficient high-lift wings and a wide airfoil -shaped body. This enables the entire craft to contribute to lift generation with the result of potentially increased fuel economy.

A lifting body is a configuration in which the body itself produces lift. In contrast to a flying wing , which is a wing with minimal or no conventional fuselage , a lifting body can be thought of as a fuselage with little or no conventional wing. Whereas a flying wing seeks to maximize cruise efficiency at subsonic speeds by eliminating non-lifting surfaces, lifting bodies generally minimize the drag and structure of a wing for subsonic, supersonic , and hypersonic flight, or, spacecraft re-entry.

All of these flight regimes pose challenges for proper flight stability. Lifting bodies were a major area of research in the s and s as a means to build a small and lightweight manned spacecraft.

The US built a number of famous lifting body rocket planes to test the concept, as well as several rocket-launched re-entry vehicles that were tested over the Pacific. Interest waned as the US Air Force lost interest in the manned mission, and major development ended during the Space Shuttle design process when it became clear that the highly shaped fuselages made it difficult to fit fuel tankage.

The classic aerofoil section wing is unstable in flight and difficult to control. Flexible-wing types often rely on an anchor line or the weight of a pilot hanging beneath to maintain the correct attitude.

Some free-flying types use an adapted aerofoil that is stable, or other ingenious mechanisms including, most recently, electronic artificial stability. But in order to achieve trim, stability and control, most fixed-wing types have an empennage comprising a fin and rudder which act horizontally and a tailplane and elevator which act vertically.

This is so common that it is known as the conventional layout. Sometimes there may be two or more fins, spaced out along the tailplane. Some types have a horizontal " canard " foreplane ahead of the main wing, instead of behind it.

Kites are controlled by wires running down to the ground. Typically each wire acts as a tether to the part of the kite it is attached to. A craft may have two pilots' seats with dual controls, allowing two pilots to take turns. This is often used for training or for longer flights. The control system may allow full or partial automation of flight, such as an autopilot , a wing leveler, or a flight management system.

An unmanned aircraft has no pilot but is controlled remotely or via means such as gyroscopes or other forms of autonomous control. On manned fixed-wing aircraft, instruments provide information to the pilots, including flight , engines , navigation Jet Plane Explanation Zone , communications , and other aircraft systems that may be installed. The six basic instruments, sometimes referred to as the "six pack", are as follows: [31].

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Heavier-than-air aircraft with fixed wings generating aerodynamic lift in the airflow caused by forward airspeed. Main articles: Aviation history and Early flying machines. See also: Aviation in the pioneer era. Main article: Aviation between the World Wars. Main article: Airplane. Main article: Seaplane. Main article: Ground effect vehicle. Main article: Glider aircraft. Play media. Main article: Glider sailplane.

Main article: Kite. See also: Rotor kite. See also: Laddermill and High altitude wind power. Main article: Kite types. Main article: Airframe. Main articles: Wing configuration and Wing.

Main article: fuselage. Main article: Flying wing. Main article: Blended wing. Main article: Lifting body. Main articles: Empennage and Canard aeronautics.

Main article: Aircraft flight control system. Aviation portal. Two lines of evidence: analysis of leaf kiting and some cave drawings" PDF. Archived from the original PDF on 23 July Retrieved 2 February Archived from the original on 29 May Retrieved 20 June Archived from the original on 13 April Retrieved 26 July In he set forth for the first time in history the concept of the modern aeroplane.

Cayley had identified the drag vector parallel to the flow and the lift vector perpendicular to the flow. Archived from the original on 11 March English pioneer of aerial navigation and aeronautical engineering and designer of the first successful glider to carry a human being aloft.

Cayley established the modern configuration of an aeroplane as a fixed-wing flying machine with separate systems for lift, propulsion, and control as early as Quest for Flight: John J. Montgomery and the Dawn of Aviation in the West. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN Australian Dictionary of Biography. Melbourne University Press. Archived from the original on 29 December Retrieved 28 December Dreams and Realities of the Conquest of the Skies. New York: Atheneum. The flights are not listed in the official FAI flight records, however, because the organization and its predecessors did not yet exist.

Retrieved 5 January Retrieved 17 August Smithsonian Institution Press. Retrieved: 28 July Archived from the original PDF on 22 May Retrieved 24 August CS1 maint: archived copy as title link , p

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