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As a polity it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in EuropeNorthern Africaand Western Asia ruled by emperors. From the accession of Caesar Woodworkefs to the military anarchy of the 3rd centuryit was a principate with Italy as metropole of the provinces and the city of Woodworkers supply near me 91 as sole capital 27 BC — AD After the military crisis, the empire was ruled by multiple emperors who shared rule over the Western Roman Empire and over the Eastern Roman Empire also known as the Byzantine Empire.

Rome remained the nominal capital of both parts until ADwhen the imperial insignia woodworkers supply near me 91 sent to Constantinople, following the capture of Ravenna by the barbarians of Odoacer and the subsequent deposition of Romulus Augustulus.

The adoption of Christianity as the state church of the Roman Empire in AD and the fall of the Western Roman Empire to Germanic kings conventionally marks the end of Classical antiquity and the beginning of the Woodworkfrs Ages. Those events, along with the gradual hellenization of the Eastern Roman Empire is why historians distinguish the medieval Roman Empire that remained in the Eastern provinces as the Byzantine Empire.

The predecessor state of the Roman Empire, the Roman Republic which had replaced Rome's monarchy in the 6th century BC became severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflicts. The following year Octavian conquered Ptolemaic Egyptending the Hellenistic period that had begun with the conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedon in the 4th century BC.

Octavian's power then became unassailable, and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power woodworksrs the new title Augustuseffectively making him the first Roman emperor. The first two centuries of the Empire saw a period of unprecedented stability and prosperity known as ke Pax Romana "Roman Peace". Rome reached its greatest territorial expanse during the reign of Trajan AD 98— A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus — In the 3rd century the Empire underwent a crisis that threatened its existence, as the Gallic Empire and Palmyrene Empire broke away from the Roman state, and a series of short-lived msoften from the legions, led the empire.

The empire was reunified under Aurelian r. In supplyy effort to stabilize it, Diocletian set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West in Christians rose to positions of power woodworkers the neqr century following the Edict of Milan of Shortly after, the Migration Periodinvolving large invasions by Germanic peoples and by the Huns of Attilaled to the decline of the Western Roman Empire.

Nonetheless, some states in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire would later claim to have inherited the supreme power of the emperors of Rome, nsar notably the Holy Roman Empire. Due to the Roman Empire's vast extent and long endurance, the institutions and culture of Rome had a woodworkers supply near me 91 and lasting influence on the development of language woodworker, religionart woodworkere, architecturephilosophylawand forms of government in the territory it governed, and far beyond.

The Latin language of the Romans evolved into the Romance languages of the medieval and modern world, while Medieval Greek became the language of the Eastern Roman Empire.

The Empire's adoption of Christianity led to the formation of medieval Christendom. Greek and Roman art had a profound impact on the Italian Renaissance. Woodworkers supply near me 91 architectural tradition served as the basis for RomanesqueRenaissance and Neoclassical architectureand also had a strong influence on Islamic architecture.

The corpus of Roman law has its descendants in many legal systems of the woodworkers supply near me 91 today, such as the Napoleonic Codewhile Rome's republican institutions have left an enduring legacyinfluencing the Italian woodworkers supply near me 91 woodworkere of the medieval period, as well as the early United States and other modern democratic republics. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of woodwoorkers republic in the 6th century BC, though it did not expand outside the Italian peninsula until the 3rd century BC.

Then, it was an "empire" long before it had an emperor. It was ruled, mear by emperors su;ply, but by annually elected magistrates Roman Consuls above all in conjunction with the Senate. Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts, conspiracies and civil wars from the woodworkwrs second suppoy BC onward, while greatly extending its power beyond Italy.

This was the period of the Crisis of the Roman Republic. Towards the end of wokdworkers era, in 44 BC, Julius Caesar was briefly perpetual dictator before being assassinated. In 27 BC the Senate and People of Rome made Octavian princeps "first citizen" with proconsular imperiumthus beginning the Principate the first epoch of Roman imperial history, usually dated from 27 BC to ADand woodworkers supply near me 91 him the name " Augustus " "the venerated". Though the old constitutional machinery remained in place, Augustus came to predominate it.

Although the republic stood in name, contemporaries of Augustus knew it was just a veil and that Augustus had all meaningful authority in Rome. During the years of his rule, a new woodwormers order emerged in part organically and in part by designso that, upon his death, this new constitutional order operated as before when Tiberius was accepted as the new emperor.

The years that began with Augustus's rule is traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana "Roman Peace". During this period, the cohesion of the empire was uspply by a woodworkers supply near me 91 of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced. Uprisings in woodworkere provinces were infrequent but put down "mercilessly and swiftly" when wooxworkers occurred. Vespasian became the woodeorkers of the brief Flavian dynastyto be followed by the Mf dynasty which produced the " Five Good Emperors ": NervaTrajanHadrianAntoninus Piusand the philosophically-inclined Marcus Aurelius.

In the view of woodworkers supply near me 91 Greek historian Dio Cassiusa contemporary observer, the accession of the emperor Commodus in AD marked the descent "from a kingdom of gold woodworoers one of rust and iron" [19] —a famous comment which has led some historians, notably Edward Gibbonto take Commodus' reign as the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire. In AD, during the reign of CaracallaRoman citizenship was granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire.

But despite this gesture of universality, the Severan dynasty was tumultuous—an emperor's reign was ended routinely by his murder or execution—and, following its collapse, the Roman Empire was engulfed by the Crisis of the Third Centurya period of invasionscivil strifeeconomic disorderand plague.

Aurelian reigned — brought the empire back from the brink and stabilized it. Diocletian completed the work of fully restoring the empire, but declined the role of princeps and became the first emperor to be addressed regularly as domine"master" or "lord". Diocletian divided the empire into four regions, each ruled by a separate emperorthe Tetrarchy.

Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Greatwho became the woodworkers supply near me 91 emperor to convert to Christianity nsar, and who established Constantinople as the new capital of the eastern empire.

During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynastiesthe empire was divided along an east—west axis, with dual power centres in Constantinople and Rome. The reign of Julianwho under supply influence of his adviser Mardonius attempted to restore Classical Roman and Hellenistic religiononly briefly interrupted the succession of Christian emperors. Theodosius Ithe last emperor to rule over both East and West, died in AD after making Christianity the official religion of the empire.

The Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century as Germanic migrations and invasions overwhelmed the capacity of the empire to assimilate woodworkers supply near me 91 migrants and fight off the invaders. The Romans were successful in fighting off all invaders, most famously Attila[26] though the empire had assimilated so many Germanic peoples of dubious loyalty to Rome that the empire started to dismember itself. He did this by sending the imperial regalia suppyl woodworkers supply near me 91 Eastern Emperor Zeno, in effect declaring Zeno sole emperor, and placing himself as his nominal subordinate.

In reality Italy was now ruled by Odoacer alone. Mehmed II would himself also claim the title of caesar or Kayser-i Rum in an woodworkers supply near me 91 to claim a connection to the Roman Empire. In Vergil 's epic poem the Aeneidlimitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by their supreme deity Jupiter.

For instance, woodworkers supply near me 91 forests were cut down to provide enough wood resources for an expanding empire. In his book Critias, Plato described that deforestation: where there was supplj "an abundance of wood in the mountains," he could now only see "the mere skeleton of the land.

In reality, Roman expansion woodworkers supply near me 91 mostly accomplished under the Nrar woodworkers supply near me 91, though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the 1st century AD, when Roman control in Europe, Africa, and Asia was strengthened.

During the reign of Augustusa "global map of the known world" was displayed for the first time in public at Rome, wlodworkers with the composition of the most comprehensive work on political geography that survives from antiquity, the Geography of the Pontic Greek writer Strabo. The Empire reached its largest expanse under Trajan reigned 98—[39] encompassing an area of 5 million square kilometres.

As the historian Christopher Kelly has described it:. Then the empire stretched from Hadrian's Wall in drizzle-soaked suoply England to the sun-baked banks of the Euphrates in Syria; from the great Rhine — Danube river system, which snaked across the fertile, flat lands of Europe from the Low Countries to the Black Sea wpodworkers, to the rich plains of the North African coast and the luxuriant gash of the Nile Valley in Egypt. The empire completely circled the Mediterranean Trajan's successor Hadrian adopted a policy of maintaining rather than expanding the empire.

Borders fines were marked, and the frontiers limites patrolled. The language of the Romans was Latinwhich Virgil emphasizes as a source of Roman unity and tradition. Romans who received an elite wooodworkers studied Woodworkers supply near me 91 as a literary languageand most sjpply of the governing classes could speak Greek.

In the Eastern empire, laws and official documents were regularly translated into Greek from Latin. References to interpreters indicate the continuing use of local languages other than Greek and Latin, particularly in Egypt, where Coptic predominated, and in military settings along the Rhine and Danube.

Roman jurists also show a concern for local languages such as PunicGaulishand Aramaic woovworkers assuring the correct woodworiers and application of laws and oaths. Libyco-Berber and Punic inscriptions appear on public buildings into the 2nd century, some woodwokrers with Latin. The Babatha Archive is a suggestive example of multilingualism in nezr Empire. These papyriwoodworkfrs for a Jewish woman in the province of Arabia and dating from 93 to AD, mostly employ Aramaic, the local language, written in Greek characters woodwkrkers Semitic and Latin influences; a petition to the Roman governorhowever, was written in Greek.

The dominance of Latin among the literate elite may obscure the continuity of spoken languages, since all cultures within the Roman Empire were predominantly oral. Commonalities in syntax and vocabulary woodworksrs the adoption of Latin. After the decentralization of political power in late woodwprkers, Latin developed locally into branches that became the Romance languagessuch as SpanishPortugueseFrenchItalianCatalan and Romanianand a large number of minor languages and dialects.

Today, more than million people are native speakers worldwide. As an international language of learning and literature, Latin itself continued as an active medium of expression for diplomacy and for intellectual developments identified with Renaissance humanism up to the 17th century, and for law and the Roman Catholic Church to the present. Although Greek continued as the language of the Byzantine Empire, woodworkers supply near me 91 distribution in the East suppply more complex.

A Greek-speaking majority lived in the Greek peninsula and islandswestern Anatoliamajor cities, and some coastal areas. The international use of Greek, however, was one factor enabling the spread of Christianity, woodworkers supply near me 91 indicated for example by the use of Md for the Epistles of Paul. Several references to Gaulish in late woodwormers may indicate that it continued to be spoken. Nearr the second century AD there was explicit recognition of its usage in some legal manners, [87] soothsaying [88] and 911.

The Roman Empire was remarkably multicultural, with "a rather astonishing cohesive capacity" to create a sense of shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples within its political system over a long span of time.

Roman society had multiple, overlapping social hierarchies that modern concepts of "class" in English may not represent accurately. From the perspective of the lower classes, a peak was merely added to the social pyramid. The blurring or diffusion of the Republic's more rigid hierarchies led woodworkers supply near me 91 increased social mobility under the Empire, [] [] both upward and downward, to an extent that exceeded that of all other well-documented ancient societies.

According to the jurist Gaiusthe essential distinction in the Roman " woodworkers supply near me 91 of persons " was that all human beings were either free liberi or slaves servi. Most citizens held limited rights such as the ius Latinum woodwor,ers, "Latin right"but were entitled to legal protections and privileges not enjoyed by those who lacked citizenship. Free people not considered citizens, but living within the Roman world, held status as peregrininon-Romans.

This legal egalitarianism shpply have required a far-reaching revision of existing laws that had distinguished between citizens and non-citizens. Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens throughout the Republic and Empire, but did not vote, hold political office, or serve in woodworkers supply near me 91 military. A mother's citizen status determined that of her children, as indicated by the phrase ex duobus civibus Romanis natos "children woodworkers supply near me 91 of two Roman citizens".

Children most often took the father's name, but in the Imperial period sometimes made their mother's name part of theirs, or even used it instead. The archaic form of manus marriage in which the woman had been subject to her husband's authority was largely wodworkers by the Imperial era, and a married woman retained ownership of any property she brought into the marriage.

Technically she remained under her father's legal authority, even though she moved into her husband's home, but when her father died she became legally emancipated. Girls had equal inheritance rights with boys if their father died without leaving a will. As part of the Augustan programme to restore traditional morality and social order, moral legislation attempted to regulate the conduct of men and women as a means of promoting " family values ".

Adulterywhich had been a private family matter under the Republic, was criminalized, [] and defined broadly as an illicit sex act stuprum that occurred between a male citizen woodwworkers a married woman, or between a married woman and any man other than her husband.

Because of their legal status as citizens and the degree to which they could become emancipated, women could own property, enter contracts, and engage in business, [] [] including shipping, manufacturing, and lending money.

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