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For if they were not just right, then we should not have found ourselves to be here now, but somewhere else, at some other appropriate time.

This principle was used very effectively by Brandon Carter and Robert Dicke to resolve an issue that had puzzled physicists for a good many years. The issue concerned various striking numerical relations that are observed to hold between the physical constants the gravitational constant , the mass of the proton , the age of the universe , etc. A puzzling aspect of this was that some of the relations hold only at the present epoch in the Earth's history, so we appear, coincidentally, to be living at a very special time give or take a few million years!

This was later explained, by Carter and Dicke, by the fact that this epoch coincided with the lifetime of what are called main-sequence stars, such as the Sun.

At any other epoch, the argument ran, there would be no intelligent life around to measure the physical constants in question—so the coincidence had to hold, simply because there would be intelligent life around only at the particular time that the coincidence did hold!

One reason this is plausible is that there are many other places and times in which we can imagine finding ourselves.

But when applying the strong principle, we only have one universe, with one set of fundamental parameters, so what exactly is the point being made? Carter offers two possibilities: First, we can use our own existence to make "predictions" about the parameters.

But second, "as a last resort", we can convert these predictions into explanations by assuming that there is more than one universe, in fact a large and possibly infinite collection of universes, something that is now called the multiverse "world ensemble" was Carter's term , in which the parameters and perhaps the laws of physics vary across universes.

The strong principle then becomes an example of a selection effect , exactly analogous to the weak principle. Postulating a multiverse is certainly a radical step, but taking it could provide at least a partial answer to a question seemingly out of the reach of normal science: "Why do the fundamental laws of physics take the particular form we observe and not another? Since Carter's paper, the term anthropic principle has been extended to cover a number of ideas that differ in important ways from his.

Barrow and Frank Tipler , [17] published that year, which distinguished between a "weak" and "strong" anthropic principle in a way very different from Carter's, as discussed in the next section. Carter was not the first to invoke some form of the anthropic principle.

In fact, the evolutionary biologist Alfred Russel Wallace anticipated the anthropic principle as long ago as "Such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required [ Ludwig Boltzmann may have been one of the first in modern science to use anthropic reasoning.

Prior to knowledge of the Big Bang Boltzmann's thermodynamic concepts painted a picture of a universe that had inexplicably low entropy. Boltzmann suggested several explanations, one of which relied on fluctuations that could produce pockets of low entropy or Boltzmann universes.

While most of the universe is featureless in this model. To Boltzmann, it is unremarkable that humanity happens to inhabit a Boltzmann universe, as that is the only place where intelligent life could be. Weak anthropic principle WAP Carter : "[W]e must be prepared to take account of the fact that our location in the universe is necessarily privileged to the extent of being compatible with our existence as observers.

Strong anthropic principle SAP Carter : "[T]he universe and hence the fundamental parameters on which it depends must be such as to admit the creation of observers within it at some stage.

To paraphrase Descartes , cogito ergo mundus talis est. Weak anthropic principle WAP Barrow and Tipler : "The observed values of all physical and cosmological quantities are not equally probable but they take on values restricted by the requirement that there exist sites where carbon-based life can evolve and by the requirements that the universe be old enough for it to have already done so.

A more important difference is that they apply the WAP to the fundamental physical constants, such as the fine-structure constant , the number of spacetime dimensions , and the cosmological constant —topics that fall under Carter's SAP. Strong anthropic principle SAP Barrow and Tipler : "The Universe must have those properties which allow life to develop within it at some stage in its history.

For Bostrom, Carter's anthropic principle just warns us to make allowance for anthropic bias —that is, the bias created by anthropic selection effects which Bostrom calls "observation" selection effects —the necessity for observers to exist in order to get a result. He writes:. Many 'anthropic principles' are simply confused. Some, especially those drawing inspiration from Brandon Carter's seminal papers, are sound, but In particular, I argue that existing methodology does not permit any observational consequences to be derived from contemporary cosmological theories, though these theories quite plainly can be and are being tested empirically by astronomers.

What is needed to bridge this methodological gap is a more adequate formulation of how observation selection effects are to be taken into account. Strong self-sampling assumption SSSA Bostrom : "Each observer-moment should reason as if it were randomly selected from the class of all observer-moments in its reference class.

Bostrom's mathematical development shows that choosing either too broad or too narrow a reference class leads to counter-intuitive results, but he is not able to prescribe an ideal choice.

It does not allow for any additional nontrivial predictions such as "gravity won't change tomorrow". To gain more predictive power, additional assumptions on the prior distribution of alternative universes are necessary. Playwright and novelist Michael Frayn describes a form of the Strong Anthropic Principle in his book The Human Touch , which explores what he characterises as "the central oddity of the Universe":. It's this simple paradox. The Universe is very old and very large.

Humankind, by comparison, is only a tiny disturbance in one small corner of it — and a very recent one.

Yet the Universe is only very large and very old because we are here to say it is And yet, of course, we all know perfectly well that it is what it is whether we are here or not. Carter chose to focus on a tautological aspect of his ideas, which has resulted in much confusion. In fact, anthropic reasoning interests scientists because of something that is only implicit in the above formal definitions, namely that we should give serious consideration to there being other universes with different values of the "fundamental parameters"—that is, the dimensionless physical constants and initial conditions for the Big Bang.

Carter and others have argued that life as we know it would not be possible in most such universes. In other words, the universe we are in is fine tuned to permit life.

Ours must be one of these, and so the observed fine tuning should be no cause for wonder. Although philosophers have discussed related concepts for centuries, in the early s the only genuine physical theory yielding a multiverse of sorts was the many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics. This would allow variation in initial conditions, but not in the truly fundamental constants.

Since that time a number of mechanisms for producing a multiverse have been suggested: see the review by Max Tegmark. At the beginning of the 21st century, the string landscape emerged as a mechanism for varying essentially all the constants, including the number of spatial dimensions. The anthropic idea that fundamental parameters are selected from a multitude of different possibilities each actual in some universe or other contrasts with the traditional hope of physicists for a theory of everything having no free parameters.

As Albert Einstein said: "What really interests me is whether God had any choice in the creation of the world. In , however, Leonard Susskind stated: " Whether we like it or not, this is the kind of behavior that gives credence to the Anthropic Principle.

The modern form of a design argument is put forth by intelligent design. Proponents of intelligent design often cite the fine-tuning observations that in part preceded the formulation of the anthropic principle by Carter as a proof of an intelligent designer. Opponents of intelligent design are not limited to those who hypothesize that other universes exist; they may also argue, anti-anthropically, that the universe is less fine-tuned than often claimed, or that accepting fine tuning as a brute fact is less astonishing than the idea of an intelligent creator.

Furthermore, even accepting fine tuning, Sober [36] and Ikeda and Jefferys , [37] [38] argue that the Anthropic Principle as conventionally stated actually undermines intelligent design.

Paul Davies 's book The Goldilocks Enigma reviews the current state of the fine tuning debate in detail, and concludes by enumerating the following responses to that debate: [ page needed ]. Omitted here is Lee Smolin 's model of cosmological natural selection , also known as fecund universes , which proposes that universes have "offspring" that are more plentiful if they resemble our universe. Also see Gardner Clearly each of these hypotheses resolve some aspects of the puzzle, while leaving others unanswered.

Followers of Carter would admit only option 3 as an anthropic explanation, whereas 3 through 6 are covered by different versions of Barrow and Tipler's SAP which would also include 7 if it is considered a variant of 4, as in Tipler The anthropic principle, at least as Carter conceived it, can be applied on scales much smaller than the whole universe.

For example, Carter [40] inverted the usual line of reasoning and pointed out that when interpreting the evolutionary record, one must take into account cosmological and astrophysical considerations. With this in mind, Carter concluded that given the best estimates of the age of the universe , the evolutionary chain culminating in Homo sapiens probably admits only one or two low probability links.

No possible observational evidence bears on Carter's WAP, as it is merely advice to the scientist and asserts nothing debatable. The obvious test of Barrow's SAP, which says that the universe is "required" to support life, is to find evidence of life in universes other than ours. Any other universe is, by most definitions, unobservable otherwise it would be included in our portion of this universe. Thus, in principle Barrow's SAP cannot be falsified by observing a universe in which an observer cannot exist.

Hogan [42] has emphasised that it would be very strange if all fundamental constants were strictly determined, since this would leave us with no ready explanation for apparent fine tuning. In fact we might have to resort to something akin to Barrow and Tipler's SAP: there would be no option for such a universe not to support life.

A generic feature of an analysis of this nature is that the expected values of the fundamental physical constants should not be "over-tuned", i. The small but finite value of the cosmological constant can be regarded as a successful prediction in this sense.

One thing that would not count as evidence for the Stabilize Wood For Turning Light Anthropic Principle is evidence that the Earth or the Solar System occupied a privileged position in the universe, in violation of the Copernican principle for possible counterevidence to this principle, see Copernican principle , unless there was some reason to think that that position was a necessary condition for our existence as observers. Fred Hoyle may have invoked anthropic reasoning to predict an astrophysical phenomenon.

He is said to have reasoned, from the prevalence on Earth of life forms whose chemistry was based on carbon nuclei, that there must be an undiscovered resonance in the carbon nucleus facilitating its synthesis in stellar interiors via the triple-alpha process. He then calculated the energy of this undiscovered resonance to be 7.

However, in Helge Kragh argued that Hoyle did not use anthropic reasoning in making his prediction, since he made his prediction in and anthropic reasoning did not come into prominence until He called this an "anthropic myth," saying that Hoyle and others made an after-the-fact connection between carbon and life decades after the discovery of the resonance.

An investigation of the historical circumstances of the prediction and its subsequent experimental confirmation shows that Hoyle and his contemporaries did not associate the level in the carbon nucleus with life at all. Don Page criticized the entire theory of cosmic inflation as follows.

Paul Davies rebutted this criticism by invoking an inflationary version of the anthropic principle. That the tiny patch of space from which our observable universe grew had to be extremely orderly, to allow the post-inflation universe to have an arrow of time, makes it unnecessary to adopt any "ad hoc" hypotheses about the initial entropy state, hypotheses other Big Bang theories require.

String theory predicts a large number of possible universes, called the "backgrounds" or "vacua". The set of these vacua is often called the " multiverse " or " anthropic landscape " or "string landscape". Leonard Susskind has argued that the existence of a large number of vacua puts anthropic reasoning on firm ground: only universes whose properties are Cutting Wood For Turning Simulator such as to allow observers to exist are observed, while a possibly much larger set of universes lacking such properties go unnoticed.

Steven Weinberg [49] believes the Anthropic Principle may be appropriated by cosmologists committed to nontheism , and refers to that Principle as a "turning point" in modern science because applying it to the string landscape "may explain how the constants of nature that we observe can take values suitable for life without being fine-tuned by a benevolent creator". There are two kinds of dimensions: spatial bidirectional and temporal unidirectional. The argument is often of an anthropic character and possibly the first of its kind, albeit before the complete concept came into vogue.

The implicit notion that the dimensionality of the universe is special is first attributed to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz , who in the Discourse on Metaphysics suggested that the world is " the one which is at the same time the simplest in hypothesis and the richest in phenomena ".

While Kant's argument is historically important, John D. Barrow says that it "gets the punch-line back to front: it is the three-dimensionality of space that explains why we see inverse-square force laws in Nature, not vice-versa" Barrow In , Paul Ehrenfest showed that if there is only one time dimension and greater than three spatial dimensions, the orbit of a planet about its Sun cannot remain stable.

The same is true of a star's orbit around the center of its galaxy. In , Hermann Weyl showed that Maxwell 's theory of electromagnetism works only with three dimensions of space and one of time. Max Tegmark expands on the preceding argument in the following anthropic manner. In such a universe, intelligent life capable of manipulating technology could not emerge.

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