The workshop supervisor gives students permission to operate this machinery independently after training and depending on the skills demonstrated. Some equipment can only be operated by the workshop supervisor. The Wood Workshop often collaborates with the Metal Workshop and 3D Lab, providing many opportunities for students to create interesting work. More information. On the KABK portal you will find more information about the opening hours and contact info of the workshop supervisors. Allys Wood Workshop. likes · 18 talking about this. We make small Animal Wooden Lawn Statues, Keyholders, Wall hangings. If it is possible, we will   See more of Allys Wood Workshop on Facebook. Log In. or. Create New Account. See more of Allys Wood Workshop on Facebook. Log In. Forgotten account?  East London Animal Welfare - South Africa. Non-profit organisation. Gonubie Market on Main coffee and crafts. Thousands of creative workshops across the UK. Our gift vouchers make a unique and creative experience gift and are redeemable against any course. Choose from glass, textiles, blacksmithing, art, jewellery, ceramics, woodwork, stone and many, many more! There is something for everyone!  Pottery: handbuilding, pinch, coil and slab building Pottery: painting Pottery: porcelain Pottery: slip casting and mould making Pottery: throwing on a potters wheel Creative business services Creative experiences Art & craft fairs, festivals & exhibitions Christmas Corporate days out & team building Creative holidays: Europe & beyond Creative holidays: UK based Easter Engagement, wedding & anniversaries Father's Day Group workshops: hen dos, stag dos and birthdays Kids. If the forest does not have a dedicated long-term tenure for timber production then there is no incentive to care for the long-term interests of the forest. He expected to see a "very tall man" but instead described his father as "a man of medium stature, pushed-back silver hair, flinty eyes, and a twizzled jaw" who "had a very strong Kerry accent". Wicca is now practised as a religion of an initiatory secret society nature with positive ethical principles, organised into autonomous covens and led by a High Priesthood. The book is divided into two sections; the first section, with thirteen chapters deals with the forest management aspects while the second section, with five chapters is dedicated to forest utilization. From the midth century, witchcraft — sometimes called contemporary witchcraft to clearly distinguish it from older beliefs — became the name of a branch of modern Paganism. Caviglia, J. Here Wood workshop south london 007 Go Wood workshop south london 007.

Yet, as anthropologist Ruth Behar writes, witchcraft, not only in Mexico but in Latin America in general, was a "conjecture of sexuality, witchcraft, and religion, in which Spanish, indigenous, and African cultures converged.

Belief in the supernatural is strong in all parts of India , and lynchings for witchcraft are reported in the press from time to time.

Apart from other types of Violence against women in Nepal , the malpractice of abusing women in the name of witchcraft is also really prominent. According to the statistics in , there was a total of 69 reported cases of abuse to women due to accusation of performing witchcraft.

The perpetrators of this malpractice are usually neighbors, so-called witch doctors and family members. According to the statistics by INSEC, [] the age group of women who fall victims to the witchcraft violence in Nepal is 20— In Japanese folklore, the most common types of witch can be separated into two categories: those who employ snakes as familiars, and those who employ foxes. Differing regional beliefs set those who use foxes into two separate types: the kitsune-mochi , and the tsukimono-suji.

The first of these, the kitsune-mochi , is a solitary figure who gains his fox familiar by bribing it with its favourite foods.

The kitsune-mochi then strikes up a deal with the fox, typically promising food and daily care in return for the fox's magical services. The fox of Japanese folklore is a powerful trickster in and of itself, imbued with powers of shape changing, possession, and illusion. These creatures can be either nefarious; disguising themselves as women in order to trap men, or they can be benign forces as in the story of "The Grateful foxes".

Philippine witches are the users of black magic and related practices from the Philippines. They include a variety of different kinds of people with differing occupations and cultural connotations which depend on the ethnic group they are associated with. They are completely different from the Western notion of what a witch is, as each ethnic group has their own definition and practices attributed to witches.

The curses and other magics of witches are often blocked, countered, cured, or lifted by Philippine shamans associated with the indigenous Philippine folk religions. Saudi Arabia continues to use the death penalty for sorcery and witchcraft. Saudi authorities also pronounced the death penalty on a Lebanese television presenter, Ali Hussain Sibat , while he was performing the hajj Islamic pilgrimage in the country. In December , she was beheaded.

In June , Yahoo reported: "The Islamic State group has beheaded two women in Syria on accusations of "sorcery", the first such executions of female civilians in Syria, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said Tuesday. An expedition sent to what is now the Xinjiang region of western China by the PBS documentary series Nova found a fully clothed female Tocharian mummy wearing a black conical hat of the type now associated with witches in Europe in the storage area of a small local museum, indicative of an Indo-European priestess.

Witchcraft in Europe between and was believed to be a combination of sorcery and heresy. While sorcery attempts to produce negative supernatural effects through formulas and rituals, heresy is the Christian contribution to witchcraft in which an individual makes a pact with the Devil. In addition, heresy denies witches the recognition of important Christian values such as baptism, salvation, Christ and sacraments.

In Early Modern European tradition, witches were stereotypically, though not exclusively, women. The peak years of witch-hunts in southwest Germany were from to It was commonly believed that individuals with power and prestige were involved in acts of witchcraft and even cannibalism.

Though it is not likely that these individuals were actually involved in these practices, they were most likely associated due to Europe's involvement in things like the slave trade, which negatively affected the lives of many individuals in the Atlantic World throughout the fifteenth through seventeenth centuries. Early converts to Christianity looked to Christian clergy to work magic more effectively than the old methods under Roman paganism, and Christianity provided a methodology involving saints and relics, similar to the gods and amulets of the Pagan world.

As Christianity became the dominant religion in Europe, its concern with magic lessened. The Protestant Christian explanation for witchcraft, such as those typified in the confessions of the Pendle witches , commonly involves a diabolical pact or at least an appeal to the intervention of the spirits of evil. The witches or wizards engaged in such practices were alleged to reject Jesus and the sacraments ; observe " the witches' sabbath " performing infernal rites that often parodied the Mass or other sacraments of the Church ; pay Divine honour to the Prince of Darkness ; and, in return, receive from him preternatural powers.

It was a folkloric belief that a Devil's Mark, like the brand on cattle, was placed upon a witch's skin by the devil to signify that this pact had been made. In the north of England, the superstition lingers to an almost inconceivable extent. Lancashire abounds with witch-doctors, a set of quacks, who pretend to cure diseases inflicted by the devil The witch-doctor alluded to is better known by the name of the cunning man, and has a large practice in the counties of Lincoln and Nottingham.

Historians Keith Thomas and his student Alan Macfarlane study witchcraft by combining historical research with concepts drawn from anthropology. Older women were the favorite targets because they were marginal, dependent members of the community and therefore more likely to arouse feelings of both hostility and guilt, and less likely to have defenders of importance inside the community.

Witchcraft accusations were the village's reaction to the breakdown of its internal community, coupled with the emergence of a newer set of values that was generating psychic stress.

In Wales, fear of witchcraft mounted around the year There was a growing alarm of women's magic as a weapon aimed against the state and church. The Church made greater efforts to enforce the canon law of marriage, especially in Wales where tradition allowed a wider range of sexual partnerships. There was a political dimension as well, as accusations of witchcraft were levied against the enemies of Henry VII, who was exerting more and more control over Wales.

The records of the Courts of Great Sessions for Wales, — show that Welsh custom was more important than English law. Custom provided a framework of responding to witches and witchcraft in such a way that interpersonal and communal harmony was maintained, Showing to regard to the importance of honour, social place and cultural status.

Even when found guilty, execution did not occur. Becoming king in , James I Brought to England and Scotland continental explanations of witchcraft. His goal was to divert suspicion away from male homosociality among the elite, and focus fear on female communities and large gatherings of women. He thought they threatened his political power so he laid the foundation for witchcraft and occultism policies, especially in Scotland.

The point was that a widespread belief in the conspiracy of witches and a witches' Sabbath with the devil deprived women of political influence. Occult power was supposedly a womanly trait because women were weaker and more susceptible to the devil. In Helen Duncan was the last person in Britain to be imprisoned for fraudulently claiming to be a witch.

There have even been child murders associated with witchcraft beliefs. The problem is particularly serious among immigrant or former immigrant communities of African origin but other communities, such as those of Asian origin are also involved. Step children and children seen as different for a wide range of reasons are particularly at risk of witchcraft accusations.

Lack of awareness among social workers, teachers and other professionals dealing with at risk children hinders efforts to combat the problem. The Metropolitan Police said there had been 60 crimes linked to faith in London so far [in ].

It saw reports double from 23 in to 46 in Half of UK police forces do not record such cases and many local authorities are also unable to provide figures.

The NSPCC said authorities "need to ensure they are able to spot the signs of this particular brand of abuse". London is unique in having a police team, Project Violet, dedicated to this type of abuse. Its figures relate to crime reports where officers have flagged a case as involving abuse linked to faith or belief.

Many of the cases involve children. An NSPCC spokesman said: "While the number of child abuse cases involving witchcraft is relatively small, they often include horrifying levels of cruelty. There is a 'money making scam' involved. Pastors accuse a child of being a witch and later the family pays for exorcism. A particularly rich source of information about witchcraft in Italy before the outbreak of the Great Witch Hunts of the Renaissance are the sermons of Franciscan popular preacher, Bernardino of Siena — , who saw the issue as one of the most pressing moral and social challenges of his day and thus preached many a sermon on the subject, inspiring many local governments to take actions against what he called "servants of the Devil.

In the 16th century, Italy had a high portion of witchcraft trials involving love magic. Professional prostitutes were considered experts in love and therefore knew how to make love potions and cast love related spells.

She was also not seen as a model citizen because her husband was in Venice. From the 16thth centuries, the Catholic Church enforced moral discipline throughout Italy. Franciscan friars from New Spain introduced Diabolism, belief in the devil, to the indigenous people after their arrival in Galicia is nicknamed the "Land of the Witches" due to its mythological origins surrounding its people, culture and its land.

Euskal Herria retains numerous legends that account for an ancient mythology of witchcraft. The town of Zalla is nicknamed as "Town of the Witches". In pre-Christian times, witchcraft was a common practice in the Cook Islands. The native name for a sorcerer was tangata purepure a man who prays. All these prayers were metrical, and were handed down from generation to generation with the utmost care.

There were prayers for every such phase in life; for success in battle; for a change in wind to overwhelm an adversary at sea, or that an intended voyage be propitious ; that his crops may grow; to curse a thief; or wish ill-luck and death to his foes.

Few men of middle age were without a number of these prayers or charms. The succession of a sorcerer was from father to son, or from uncle to nephew. So too of sorceresses: it would be from mother to daughter, or from aunt to niece. Sorcerers and sorceresses were often slain by relatives of their supposed victims.

A singular enchantment was employed to kill off a husband of a pretty woman desired by someone else. The expanded flower of a Gardenia was stuck upright—a very difficult performance—in a cup i.

A prayer was then offered for the husband's speedy death, the sorcerer earnestly watching the flower. Should it fall the incantation was successful.

But if the flower still remained upright, he will live. The sorcerer would in that case try his skill another day, with perhaps better success. According to Beatrice Grimshaw , a journalist who visited the Cook Islands in , the uncrowned Queen Makea was believed to have possessed the mystic power called mana , giving the possessor the power to slay at will.

It also included other gifts, such as second sight to a certain extent, the power to bring good or evil luck , and the ability already mentioned to deal death at will. A local newspaper informed that more than 50 people were killed in two Highlands provinces of Papua New Guinea in for allegedly practicing witchcraft.

It was reported in that a father blamed witchcraft for the death of his family, claiming that his in-laws were "too much into witchcraft". Pagan practices formed a part of Russian and Eastern Slavic culture; the Russian people were deeply superstitious. The witchcraft practiced consisted mostly of earth magic and herbology; it was not so significant which herbs were used in practices, but how these herbs were gathered.

Ritual centered on harvest of the crops and the location of the sun was very important. Spells also served for midwifery, shape-shifting, keeping lovers faithful, and bridal customs.

Spells dealing with midwifery and childbirth focused on the spiritual wellbeing of the baby. Her sweat would be wiped from her body using raw fish, and the fish would be cooked and fed to the groom.

Demonism, or black magic, was not prevalent. Persecution for witchcraft, mostly involved the practice of simple earth magic, founded on herbology, by solitary practitioners with a Christian influence. In one case investigators found a locked box containing something bundled in a kerchief and three paper packets, wrapped and tied, containing crushed grasses.

While these customs were unique to Russian culture, they were not exclusive to this region. Russian pagan practices were often akin to paganism in other parts of the world. The Chinese concept of chi , a form of energy that often manipulated in witchcraft, is known as bioplasma in Russian practices.

Spoilers could be made by gathering bone from a cemetery, a knot of the target's hair, burned wooden splinters and several herb Paris berries which are very poisonous.

Placing these items in sachet in the victim's pillow completes a spoiler. The Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and the ancient Egyptians recognized the evil eye from as early as 3, BCE; in Russian practices it is seen as a sixteenth-century concept. The dominant societal concern those practicing witchcraft was not whether paganism was effective, but whether it could cause harm. Impotence, stomach pains, barrenness, hernias, abscesses, epileptic seizures, and convulsions were all attributed to evil or witchcraft.

This is reflected in linguistics; there are numerous words for a variety of practitioners of paganism-based healers. Ironically enough, there was universal reliance on folk healers — but clients often turned them in if something went wrong. According to Russian historian Valerie A. Kivelson, witchcraft accusations were normally thrown at lower-class peasants, townspeople and Cossacks.

People turned to witchcraft as a means to support themselves. Males were targeted more, because witchcraft was associated with societal deviation. Because single people with no settled home could not be taxed, males typically had more power than women in their dissent. The history of Witchcraft had evolved around society. More of a psychological concept to the creation and usage of Witchcraft can create the assumption as to why women are more likely to follow the practices behind Witchcraft.

Identifying with the soul of an individual's self is often deemed as "feminine" in society. There is analyzed social and economic evidence to associate between witchcraft and women. Witchcraft trials frequently occurred in seventeenth-century Russia, although the " great witch-hunt " is believed [ by whom? However, as the witchcraft-trial craze swept across Catholic and Protestant countries during this time, Orthodox Christian Europe indeed partook in this so-called "witch hysteria.

Very early on witchcraft legally fell under the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical body, the church, in Kievan Rus' and Muscovite Russia.

The sentence for an individual who was found guilty of witchcraft or sorcery during this time, as well as in previous centuries, typically included either burning at the stake or being tested with the " ordeal of cold water " or judicium aquae frigidae.

Accused persons who submerged were considered innocent, and ecclesiastical authorities would proclaim them "brought back", but those who floated were considered guilty of practicing witchcraft, and they were either burned at the stake or executed in an unholy fashion.

The thirteenth-century bishop of Vladimir, Serapion Vladimirskii, preached sermons throughout the Muscovite countryside, and in one particular sermon revealed that burning was the usual punishment for witchcraft, but more often the cold water test was used as a precursor to execution. Although these two methods of torture were used in the west and the east, Russia implemented a system of fines payable for the crime of witchcraft during the seventeenth century.

Thus, even though torture methods in Muscovy were on a similar level of harshness as Western European methods used, a more civil method was present.

In the introduction of a collection of trial records pieced together by Russian scholar Nikolai Novombergsk, he argues that Muscovite authorities used the same degree of cruelty and harshness as Western European Catholic and Protestant countries in persecuting witches.

Tsar Ivan IV reigned — took this matter to the ecclesiastical court and was immediately advised that individuals practicing these forms of witchcraft should be excommunicated and given the death penalty. So, during the Oprichnina — , Ivan IV succeeded in accusing and charging a good number of boyars with witchcraft whom he did not wish to remain as nobles.

Rulers after Ivan IV, specifically during the Time of Troubles — , increased the fear of witchcraft among themselves and entire royal families, which then led to further preoccupation with the fear of prominent Muscovite witchcraft circles.

After the Time of Troubles , seventeenth-century Muscovite rulers held frequent investigations of witchcraft within their households, laying the groundwork, along with previous tsarist reforms, for widespread witchcraft trials throughout the Muscovite state.

Witches have a long history of being depicted in art, although most of their earliest artistic depictions seem to originate in Early Modern Europe, particularly the Medieval and Renaissance periods. Many scholars attribute their manifestation in art as inspired by texts such as Canon Episcopi , a demonology-centered work of literature, and Malleus Maleficarum , a "witch-craze" manual published in , by Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger.

Canon Episcopi , a ninth-century text that explored the subject of demonology, initially introduced concepts that would continuously be associated with witches, such as their ability to fly or their believed fornication and sexual relations with the devil. The text refers to two women, Diana the Huntress and Herodias, who both express the duality of female sorcerers. Diana was described as having a heavenly body and as the "protectress of childbirth and fertility" while Herodias symbolized "unbridled sensuality".

They thus represent the mental powers and cunning sexuality that witches used as weapons to trick men into performing sinful acts which would result in their eternal punishment.

These characteristics were distinguished as Medusa-like or Lamia-like traits when seen in any artwork Medusa's mental trickery was associated with Diana the Huntress's psychic powers and Lamia was a rumored female figure in the Medieval ages sometimes used in place of Herodias. His famous engraving The Four Witches , portrays four physically attractive and seductive nude witches. Their supernatural identities are emphasized by the skulls and bones lying at their feet as well as the devil discreetly peering at them from their left.

The women's sensuous presentation speaks to the overtly sexual nature they were attached to in early modern Europe. Moreover, this attractiveness was perceived as a danger to ordinary men who they could seduce and tempt into their sinful world. Specifically, his art often referred to former 12th- to 13th-century Medieval iconography addressing the nature of female sorcerers.

In the Medieval period, there was a widespread fear of witches, accordingly producing an association of dark, intimidating characteristics with witches, such as cannibalism witches described as "[sucking] the blood of newborn infants" [] or described as having the ability to fly, usually on the back of black goats. As the Renaissance period began, these concepts of witchcraft were suppressed, leading to a drastic change in the sorceress' appearances, from sexually explicit beings to the 'ordinary' typical housewives of this time period.

This depiction, known as the 'Waldensian' witch became a cultural phenomenon of early Renaissance art.

The term originates from the 12th-century monk Peter Waldo, who established his own religious sect which explicitly opposed the luxury and commodity-influenced lifestyle of the Christian church clergy, and whose sect was excommunicated before being persecuted as "practitioners of witchcraft and magic".

Subsequent artwork exhibiting witches tended to consistently rely on cultural stereotypes about these women. These stereotypes were usually rooted in early Renaissance religious discourse, specifically the Christian belief that an "earthly alliance" had taken place between Satan's female minions who "conspired to destroy Christendom". His chiaroscuro woodcut, Witches , created in , visually encompassed all the characteristics that were regularly assigned to witches during the Renaissance.

Social beliefs labeled witches as supernatural beings capable of doing great harm, possessing the ability to fly, and as cannibalistic. Meanwhile, their nudity while feasting is recognized as an allusion to their sexual appetite, and some scholars read the witch riding on the back of a goat-demon as representative of their "flight-inducing [powers]". This connection between women's sexual nature and sins was thematic in the pieces of many Renaissance artists, especially Christian artists, due to cultural beliefs which characterized women as overtly sexual beings who were less capable in comparison to men of resisting sinful temptation.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Practice of magical skills and abilities. For other uses, see Witchcraft disambiguation. For the etymology of "witch", see Witch word. For other uses, see Witch disambiguation. Further information: Witch word.

See also: Magic supernatural. Main article: Demonology. Main article: White witch. Further information: Folk religion , Magical thinking , and Shamanism. Main article: Wicca. Main article: Traditional witchcraft. Main article: Stregheria. Main article: Satanism and Witchcraft.

Main article: Witchcraft and divination in the Hebrew Bible. See also: Christian views on magic. See also: Witchcraft and divination in the Hebrew Bible.

See also: Islam and astrology and Superstitions in Muslim societies. Further information: Witchcraft accusations against children in Africa.

For the percussion instrument, see Djembe. Main article: Asian witchcraft. Main article: Philippine witches. Further information: Witch trials in early modern Scotland. Main articles: Akelarre witchcraft , Catalan mythology about witches , Galicians , and Galicia Spain.

Witchcraft in the Middle Ages. ISBN Religion and the Decline of Magic. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Henrietta; Krueger, Victoria Medicine women, curanderas, and women doctors. University of Oklahoma Press. Retrieved 8 October Toronto Star. Philippine Studies Vol. Ateneo de Manila University.

Putnams Sons, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: University of Philadelphia Press. Magic is central not only in 'primitive' societies but in 'high cultural' societies as well.

Retrieved June 29, New York City: Viking Press. OCLC The Telegraph. London, England: Telegraph Media Group. BBC News. London, England: BBC. Journal of Public Health in Africa. The Ghana-Italy News. Archived from the original on 3 September Retrieved 31 October Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 29 October Europe's Inner Demons. New York City: Basic Books. Witchcraft, Oracles and Magic Among the Azande.

The first three categories were proposed by Richard Kieckhefer , the fourth added by Christina Larner. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. PMID Witches, Druids and King Arthur. Witchcraft in Old and New England. Witchcraft, Magic and Culture, — Manchester, England: Manchester University Press. Anglo-Saxon England. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. World Archaeology. London, England: Routledge.

JSTOR December Journal of Religious History. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell. Archived from the original on January 5, Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. San Francisco, California: Pandora. Marian Edinburgh, Scotland: Canongate Books. Domestic Annals of Scotland. Edinburgh, Scotland. Satan's Invisible World Discovered. The Emergence of Modern Europe: C. Britannica Educational Publishing. In the Spanish Inquisition cautioned its members not to believe everything the Malleus said, even when it presented apparently firm evidence.

Psychology Press. Retrieved 31 October — via Google Books. The Discoverie of Witchcraft. Booke V. Retrieved June Archived from the original PDF on Asian Human Rights Commission. Violence Against Women. S2CID World Health Organization. Retrieved 17 October Breaking the spell: Responding to witchcraft accusations against children, in New Issues in refugee Research Children accused of witchcraft, An anthropological study of contemporary practices in Africa.

The Invention of Child Witches in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Social cleansing, religious commerce and the difficulties of being a parent in an urban culture. Children in the DRC. Wiccan Roots. Gerald Gardner and the Cauldron of Inspiration. Witchcraft Out of the Shadows. November Contemporary Sociology.

ISSN Jeunesse: Young People, Texts, Cultures. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. Children's Literature in Education. Proceedings of the International Communication Association. Neo-Pagan Witchcraft". Point of Inquiry Interview. Retrieved 9 December Prometheus Books. Leo L. Martello, Interview with Sloane on pp. Church of Satan. The Satanic Temple. Robinson March Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance.

Retrieved March 24, The devil and the deep blue sea: Navy gives blessing to sailor Satanist. New York Times. Christian Science Monitor. Ashgate Publishing. In Jesper Aagaard Petersen ed. Retrieved 16 September There is some discrepancy between translations; compare with that given in the Catholic Encyclopedia article on Witchcraft accessed 31 March , and the L.

King translation Archived at the Wayback Machine accessed 31 March Magic and Magicians in the Greco-Roman World. Magic and Divination in Early Islam. The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia.

Leaman, Oliver, —, Credo Reference. Abingdon, Oxon [England]: Routledge. Direct agents and causes of deforestation, also typically referred to as sources of deforestation, first level or proximate causes Panayotou, ; Barbier et al. Similarly, Pearce and Brown identified two main forces affecting deforestation.

They are: - Competition between humans and other species for the remaining ecological niches on land and in coastal regions. This factor is substantially demonstrated by the conversion of forest land to other uses such as agriculture, infrastructure, urban development, industry and others. Deforestation: Causes, Effects and Control Strategies 7 - Failure in the working of the economic systems to reflect the true value of the environment.

Basically, many of the functions of tropical forests are not marketed and as such are ignored in decision making. Additionally, decisions to convert tropical forests are themselves encouraged by fiscal and other incentives. The former can be regarded as the direct and latter as indirect cause of deforestation. Tropical forests are one of the last frontiers in the search for subsistence land for the most vulnerable people worldwide Myers, Millions of people live on the tropical forest with less than a dollar a day where a third of a billion are estimated to be foreign settlers.

However, as the land degrades people are forced to migrate, exploring new forest frontiers increasing deforestation Wilkie et al. Deforestation is proxied by the expansion of agricultural land. This is because agricultural land expansion is generally viewed as the main source of deforestation contributing around 60 per cent of total tropical deforestation.

It is been often reported as the main agent of deforestation. Smallholder production in deforestation and the growing number of such producers notably shifting cultivators were the main cause of deforestation Anon. Mostly all reports indicate shifting agriculture as responsible for about one half of tropical deforestation and some put it up to two-thirds. Shifting agriculture was greatest in Asia about 30 per cent but only about 15 per cent over the whole tropical world.

It appears that the proportion of direct conversion of forest to agriculture is increasing and the proportion of shifting agriculture is decreasing with time.

The fact that plantations remove the timber pressure on natural forests does not translate eventually into less, but rather into more deforestation. Indeed, it is feared that agricultural expansion which is the main cause of deforestation in the tropics might replace forestry in the remaining natural forests Anon. The impact of timber plantations could thus turn out to be quite detrimental to tropical forest ecosystems Kartodihardjo and Supriono, Tree crops and rubber in particular plays a more important role in deforestation in Indonesia than subsistence-oriented shifting cultivation Chomitz and Griffiths, Unfortunately about one-half of the plantations in the tropics are established on native forest cleared for the purpose.

Moreover plantations can promote deforestation by constructing roads that improve access of the shifting cultivators and others to the forest frontier. However, logging can seriously degrade forests Putz et al. Logging in Southeast Asia is more intensive and can be quite destructive. However, logging provides access roads to follow-on settlers and log scales can help finance the cost of clearing remaining trees and preparing land for planting of crops or pasture.

Logging thus catalyzes deforestation Chomitz et al. Fuelwood gathering is often concentrated in tropical dry forests and degraded forest areas Repetto, ; ; Rowe et al. Fuelwood is not usually the major cause of deforestation in the humid tropics although it can be in some populated regions with reduced forest area such as in the Philippines, Thailand and parts of Central America.

Fuelwood gathering was considered to be the main cause of deforestation and forest degradation in El Salvador Repetto, In the drier areas of tropics, Fuelwood gathering can be a major cause of deforestation and degradation.

Stripping trees to provide fodder for grazing animals can also be a problem in some dry areas of the tropics but is probably not a major cause of deforestation. Clear cutting and overgrazing have turned large areas of Qinghai province in China into a desert.

Overgrazing are causing large areas of grasslands north of Beijing and in Inner Mongolia and Qinghai province to turn into a desert. One man who lived in a village on the eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau that was being swallowed up by sand told the New York Times, "The pasture here used to be so green and rich. But now the grass is disappearing and the sand is coming. In Xillinggol Prefecture in Inner Mongolia, for example, the livestock population increased from 2 million in to 18 million in , turning one third of the grassland area to desert.

Unless something is done the entire prefecture could be uninhabitable by Overgrazing is exacerbated by sociological phenomena called "the tragedy of the common.

This leads to more animals than the land can support. Grassland in Qinghai that can support 3. Animals remove the vegetation and winds finished the job by blowing away the top soil, transforming grasslands into desert. Fire is a good servant but has a poor master. Fire used responsibly can be a valuable tool in agricultural and forest management but if abused it can be a significant cause of deforestation Repetto, ; Rowe et al.

Based on the data available from countries representing 65 per cent of the global forest area, an average of Deforestation due to road pavements in Brazil had also lead to higher incidences of forest fires Carvalho et al. The area of land involved is quite small and it is not seen as a major cause of primary deforestation. Mining is a lucrative activity promoting development booms which may attract population growth with consequent deforestation.

The deforestation rate due to mining activities in Guyana from to increased 2. Massive and unchecked mining of coal, iron ore and bauxite in Jharkhand, India has caused large scale deforestation and created a huge water scarcity Anon. Moreover, Roads constructed to support the mining operations will open up the area to shifting agriculturists, permanent farmers, ranchers, land speculators and infrastructure developers.

The construction of roads, railways, bridges, and airports opens up the land to development and brings increasing numbers of peoples to the forest frontier. If wood is used as fuel in mining operations and it is sources from plantations established for the purpose, it can cause serious deforestation in the region. On the other hand, mining can be labour intensive and take labour away from clearing forest.

Tropical forests are a major target of infra-structure developments for oil exploitation, logging concessions or hydropower dam construction which inevitably conveys the expansion of the road network and the construction of roads in pristine areas Kaimowitz and Angelsen, The construction of roads, railways, bridges, and airports opens up the land to development and brings increasing numbers of people to the forest frontier.

Wilkie et al. The development of these infra- structure projects are of worldwide concern, since tropical forest clearing accounts for roughly 20 per cent of anthropogenic carbon emissions destroying globally significant carbon sinks Anon. In , eight per cent of all West German trees exhibited damage that rose to about 52 per cent by Raloff, and half of the trees reported dying of Waldsterben in the Alps Lean, High elevation forests show the earliest damage including forests in the north-east and central United States.

More recently, linkages have been documented between the civil war in Myanmar and the timber trade between Myanmar and Thailand. Myanmar regime sells timber to the Thais to finance its civil war against the Karen hill tribe. Forest destruction in El Salvador has resulted from war.

Apart from military involvements in wars, the role of military in deforestation has been documented in Southeast Asia and South America Mather, ; Sands, The authors also observed that role of powerful military in Brazilian politics are a major cause of Amazonian forest destruction.

Unfortunately, the national governments of tropical and sub-tropical countries adopt tourism for easy way of making money sacrificing the stringent management strategies.

Further, many companies and resorts who advertise themselves as eco-tourist establishments are in fact exploiting the forests for profit. In Cape Tribulation, Australia, for example, the rain forest is being threatened by excessive tourism Colchester and Lohmann, Similarly, in the Terai Duars of eastern India foothill Himalaya, eco-tourism is encouraged and we fear this is being done without developing adequate management plans. For instance, the Chilapatta Reserve Forest in this area is opened for eco-tourism for its ancient ruins deep in the forest and a tree species Myristica longifolia that exudes a blood like sap when injured.

The site has become a popular eco-tourist destination because of the ruins and for this blood exuding tree. In the whole forest only eight individuals were found but two of the trees in the near vicinity of the ruins completely dried away due to repeated injuries caused to the plants by the curious tourists Shukla, In fact, in the name of eco-tourism, infra-structure development is taking place mostly be the private players in these wilderness areas which are further detrimental in terms of attracting peoples other than tourists also, causing deforestation especially deep in the forest.

Deforestation: Causes, Effects and Control Strategies 11 3. It is in the name of development that irrational and unscrupulous logging, cash crops, cattle ranching, large dams, colonisation schemes, the dispossession of peasants and indigenous peoples and promotion of tourism is carried out.

It is the throw away culture of the industrialized countries now advertised in and forced on to the Third World countries that is leading to the throwing away of the world. Such a development leads to overconsumption which is the basic underlying cause of deforestation. Colonialism turned previously self-sufficient economies into zones of agriculture export production. This process continues even today in different form of exploitation and the situation is worsening Colchester and Lohmann, Unfortunately also the governments of these poor resource rich countries had generally adopted the same growth-syndrome as their western neighbours or their erstwhile colonial master giving emphasis on maximizing exports, revenues and exploiting their rich natural resources unsustainably for short-term gains.

Moreover, corruption in government, the military and economic powers is well known. The problem is further worsened by the low price of the most Third World exports being realized in the international market Colchester and Lohmann, For instance, construction of roads for logging operations in some South-east Asian countries was funded by Japanese aid which allowed the Japanese timber companies to exploit the forests of these countries.

Understandably, these timber companies profitably exploited the forests while the South-east Asian countries were left owing Japan money for construction of their roads Colchester and Lohmann, The impact of population density on deforestation has been a subject of controversy. Poverty and overpopulation are believed to be the main causes of forest loss according to the international agencies such as FAO and intergovernmental bodies.

It is generally believed by these organizations that they can solve the problem by encouraging development and trying to reduce population growth. Conversely, the World Rainforest Movement and many other NGOs hold unrestrained development and the excessive consumption habits of rich industrialized countries directly responsible for most forest loss.

However there is good evidence that rapid population growth is a major indirect and over-arching cause of deforestation. More people require more food and space which requires more land for agriculture and habitation. This in turn results in more clearing of forests. Arguably increasing population is the biggest challenge of all to achieve sustainable management of human life support systems and controlling population growth is perhaps the best single thing that can be done to promote sustainability.

Overpopulation is not a problem exclusive to Third World countries. The growing population in rich industrialized nations are therefore responsible for much of the exploitation of the earth and there is a clear link between the overconsumption in rich countries and deforestation in the tropics Colchester and Lohmann, Poverty and overpopulation are inextricably linked. Poverty, while undeniably responsible for much of the damage to rainforests, has to a large extent been brought about by the greed of the rich industrialized nations and the Third World elites who seek to emulate them.

Development is often regarded as the solution to world poverty, seldom helps those whose need is greatest. Thus, it is often the cause rather than the cure for poverty.

The claim that overpopulation is the cause of deforestation is used by many governments and aid agencies as an excuse for inaction. In tropical countries, pressure from human settlement comes about more from inequitable land distribution than from population pressure. Generally, most of the land is owned by small but powerful elite which displaces poor farmers into rainforest areas.

So long as these elites maintain their grip on power, lasting land reform will be difficult to achieve Colchester and Lohmann, and deforestation continues unabated. Therefore poverty is well considered to be an important underlying cause of forest conversion by small-scale farmers and naturally forest-dense areas are frequently associated with high levels of poverty Chomitz et al.

The population also often lacks the finance necessary for investments to maintain the quality of soil or increase yields on the existing cleared land Purnamasari, Deforestation is affected mainly by the uneven distribution of wealth.

Shifting cultivators at the forest frontier are among the poorest and most marginalized sections of the population. Consequently they have no option but to clear the virgin forest.

Deforestation including clearing for agricultural activities is often the only option available for the livelihoods of farmers living in forested areas Angelsen, Moreover, governments and international aid agencies earlier believed that by encouraging colonisation and transmigration schemes into rainforest areas could alleviate poverty of the areas in the financially poorer countries.

Such schemes have miserably failed but hurted the indigenous people and the environment. In Indonesia, the Transmigrasi Program of had caused annual deforestation of two lakh hectares Colchester and Lohmann, Dispossessed and landless people bring increased population pressure to the forest frontier. Further, new migrants in the area increase demand for food and other agricultural products which can induce the farmers at the forest frontier to increase their agricultural production by expanding agricultural land by clearing the forests Levang, Moreover, the new migrants may not care for conservation of the forests in their new home which further accelerates deforestation of the area.

This means they have to clear more forest to survive. Poorly defined tenure is generally bad for people and forests Chomitz et al. In many countries government have nominal control of forests but are too weak to effectively regulate their use.

This can lead to a tragedy of the commons where forest resources are degraded. In frontier areas deforestation is a common practice and legalized way of declaring claim to land and securing tenure Schneider, One point of view is that development will increase land productivity and thereby reduce the need to clear forests to meet food requirements.

Another is that development will produce further capital and incentive to expand and clear more forest. The former may be the case when constrained by a fixed food demand. The latter may be the case when food demand may not be satisfied owing to a continuing export market and rising internal population with rising levels of consumption.

Profits from deforestation vary from less than a dollar to thousand dollars per hectare depending on location, technologies and land use systems Chomitz et al. Conversely, through transfers, stronger credit markets and better opportunities for off-season employment can increase income as well as deforestation by small land holders.

Higher prices for crops and lower prices for farm inputs also spur faster deforestation Chomitz et al. Wage increase can also stimulate deforestation Barbier and Cox, Technological innovations make farming more profitable either prompting the expansion of farms into forest or attract new farmers to forest frontiers Angelsen and Kaimowitz, ; Angelsen, Even when the increase in commodity price is only temporary, it tends to raise expectation about future prices, increasing the expected probability from land clearance and conversion to agriculture Angelsen, ; Sunderlin et al.

Many development policies have failed because they have supported either wittingly or unwittingly the development of those who already have land, power, influence and political clout. This further alienates the rural poor and puts the pressure back on the forests. Poor farm households or commercial loggers have little incentive to care about the environmental effects of their actions. Such unaccounted costs give rise to economic failures such as local market failures, policy failures and global appropriation failures Panayotou, Market fails due to unregulated market economy which does not produce an optimal outcome.

Prices generated by such market does not reflect the true social costs and benefits from resource use and convey misleading information about resource scarcity, providing inadequate incentives for management, efficient utilization and enhancement of natural resources. Policy failures or market distortions are result of misguided intervention or unsuccessful attempts to mitigate failures resulting in worse outcomes Panayotou, For instance, lack of respect of traditional land rights make property rights to forest land uncertain and could encourage short-term exploitation of forests rather than long-term sustainable use.

Further, global appropriation failures occur as in the case of tropical forests- the benefits of biodiversity conservation and the value of the genetic pool in developing new medicines, crops and pest control agents are poorly reflected in market allocations. For instance, it was argued that improved terms of trade for agricultural and forest product exports and higher real exchange rates make it more profitable to convert forests to other uses Capistrano, ; Southgate, ; Kant and Redantz, The initial empirical analysis done by Scrieciu appears to confirm that tropical deforestation is caused by the drive for maximizing profits within the agricultural sector.

Rampant consumerism by the developed countries frequently has been claimed as a major reason for tropical deforestation. The opening of tropical countries to the world commodity markets accelerated deforestation. The products include coffee, sugar, bananas, cotton and beef in Central America and oil palm, rubber and timber in Southeast Asia. The extraction of non-wood forest products has been suggested as a way to add value to the forest but it is not economical when compared to clearing options.

If some means could be devised where those who benefit from the environmental values could pay the forest owners or agents of deforestation for them, then the option to not clear would become more competitive. Alternatively, if the national governments value the environmental benefits, it could apply a tax or disincentives to clear.

However, even though maintenance of the environmental services is essential for sustained economic development, deforesting nations usually have more immediate goals and are unprepared to take this step.

Deforestation: Causes, Effects and Control Strategies 15 3. Illegal forest practices may include the approval of illegal contracts with private enterprises by forestry officers, illegal sale of harvesting permits, under-declaring volumes cut in public forest, under- pricing of wood in concessions, harvesting of protected trees by commercial corporations, smuggling of forest products across borders and allowing illegal logging, processing forest raw materials without a license Contreras-Hermosilla, ; Effects of deforestation 4.

Deforestation can change the global change of energy not only through the micrometeorological processes but also by increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere Pinker, because carbon dioxide absorbs thermal infrared radiation in the atmosphere. Moreover deforestation can lead to increase in the albedo of the land surface and hence affects the radiation budget of the region Charney, ; Rowntree, ; Gupta et al.

Deforestation affects wind flows, water vapour flows and absorption of solar energy thus clearly influencing local and global climate Chomitz et al. Deforestation on lowland plains moves cloud formation and rainfall to higher elevations Lawton et al. Deforestation disrupts normal weather patterns creating hotter and drier weather thus increasing drought and desertification, crop failures, melting of the polar ice caps, coastal flooding and displacement of major vegetation regimes.

In the dry forest zones, land degradation has become an increasingly serious problem resulting in extreme cases in desertification Dregne, Desertification is the consequence of extremes in climatic variation and unsustainable land use practices including overcutting of forest cover Anon. Global warming or global change includes anthropogenically produced climatic and ecological problems such as recent apparent climatic temperature shifts and precipitation regimes in some areas, sea level rise, stratospheric ozone depletion, atmospheric pollution and forest decline.

Tropical forests are shrinking at a rate of about five per cent per decade as forests are logged and cleared to supply local, regional, national and global markets for wood products, cattle, agricultural produce and biofuels Anon.

One of the most important ramifications of deforestation is its effect on the global atmosphere. Deforestation contributes to global warming which occurs from increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases GHG leading to net increase in the global mean temperature as the forests are primary terrestrial sink of carbon. Thus deforestation disrupts the global carbon cycle increasing the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Tropical deforestation is responsible for the emission of roughly two billion tonnes of carbon as CO2 to the atmosphere per year Houghton, Release of the carbon dioxide due to global deforestation is equivalent to an estimated 25 per cent of emissions from combustion of fossil fuels Asdrasko, With removal of part of the forest, the area cannot hold as much water creating a drier climate.

Urban water protection is potentially one of the most important services that forest provides Chomitz et al. Filtering and treating water is expensive. Forests can reduce the costs of doing so either actively by filtering runoff or passively by substituting for housing or farms that generate runoff Dudley and Stolton, Deforestation can also result into watersheds that are no longer able to sustain and regulate water flows from rivers and streams.

Once they are gone, too much water can result into downstream flooding, many of which have caused disasters in many parts of the world. This downstream flow causes soil erosion thus also silting of water courses, lakes and dams.

Deforestation increases flooding mainly for two reasons. Second, deforestation often results in soil compaction unable to absorb rain. Locally, this causes a faster response of stream flows to rainfall and thus potential flash flooding Chomitz et al.

Moreover deforestation also decrease dry season flows. The long term effect of deforestation on the soil resource can be severe. Clearing the vegetative cover for slash and burn farming exposes the soil to the intensity of the tropical sun and torrential rains. Forest floors with their leaf litter and porous soils easily accommodate intense rainfall. The effects of deforestation on water availability, flash floods and dry season flows depend on what happens to these countervailing influences of infiltration and evapotranspiration- the sponge versus the fountain Bruijnzeel, Deforestation and other land use changes have increased the proportion of the basin subject to erosion and so over the long run have contributed to siltation.

Heavy siltation has raised the river bed increasing the risk of flooding especially in Yangtze river basin in China, the major river basins of humid tropics in East Asia and the Amazonian basin Yin and Li, ; Bruijnzeel, ; Aylward, , Bruijnzeel et al. Retaining the biodiversity of the forested areas is like retaining a form of capital, until more research can establish the relative importance of various plants and animal species Anon.

The biodiversity loss and associated large changes in forest cover could trigger abrupt, irreversible and harmful changes. These include regional climate change including feedback effects that could theoretically shift rainforests to savannas and the emergence of new pathogens as the growing trade in bushmeat increases contact between humans and animals Anon. Elephant habitat located at northern West Bengal in India is part of the Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot which is characterized by a high degree of fragmentation.

The heavy fragmentation of this habitat has resulted into an intense human-elephant conflict causing not only in loss of agricultural crops but also human and elephant lives. Mortality of about 50 persons and 20 elephants was reported due to these severe human-elephant conflicts from this hotspot area annually Sukumar et al.

By destroying the forests, all potential future revenues and future employment that could be derived from their sustainable management for timber and non- timber products disappear. The social consequences of deforestation are many, often with devastating long-term impacts. The intrusion of outsiders destroys traditional life styles, customs and religious beliefs which intensifies with infra-structure development like construction of roads which results into frontier expansion often with social and land conflicts Schmink and Wood, The most immediate social impact of deforestation occurs at the local level with the loss of ecological services provided by the forests.

By destroying the forests we risk our own quality of life, gamble with the stability of climate and local weather, threaten the existence of other species and undermine the valuable services provided by biological diversity.

Stretegies to reduce deforestation Ways to reducing deforestation must go hand in hand with improving the welfare of cultivators at the forest frontier. Any policy that does without the other is unacceptable. There are no general solutions and strategies since these will vary with region and will change over time.

All strategies require cooperation and goodwill. Effective implementation is essential including stakeholder participation, development of management plans, monitoring and enforcement. The strategies should be such that on one hand they should recognize the critical roles of national, state and municipal governments and on other hand empower the civil society and the private sector to take a pro-active role in reducing deforestation, often working in conjunction with government.

Consequent of reduced population, increase in per capita income will occur as a consequence of increased incomes and literacy rates which will reduce pressure on the remaining forests for new human settlement and land use change. Significant work is underway on tools for use in monitoring developing country adherence to their agreed REDDS targets Chomitz et al.

Protected areas alone, however, are not sufficient to conserve biodiversity. They should be considered alongside, and as part of, a wider strategy to conserve biodiversity. The minimum area of forest to be protected is generally considered to be 10 per cent of total forest area.

It is reported that Tropical and temperate forests have the highest proportions of their forests in protected areas and boreal forests have the least. The Americas have the greatest proportion while Europe the least proportion of protected areas Anon. If the forest does not have a dedicated long-term tenure for timber production then there is no incentive to care for the long-term interests of the forest.

FAO found that 89 per cent of forests in industrialized countries were under some form of management but only about six per cent were in developing countries. If 20 per cent could be set aside, not only could timber demand be sustainably met but buffer zones could be established to consolidate the protected areas.

This would form a conservation estate that would be one of the largest and most important in the world Anon. Governments can impose realistic prices on stumpage and forest rent and can invest in improving the sustainable productivity of the forest.

National and international beneficiaries of the environmental services of forests have to pay for such services Chomitz et al. This success can further be more realized by integrating participatory mode of management with these collection schemes to ensure rights and tenure with equity in resource and benefit sharing for improving the livelihood of the rural poors who actually are the primary stakeholders of conservation and management.

Achieving ecological sustainability means that the ecological values of the forest must not be degraded and if possible they should be improved. This means that silviculture and management should not reduce biodiversity, soil erosion should be controlled, soil fertility should not be lost, water quality on and off site should be maintained and that forest health and vitality should be safeguarded.

However, management for environmental services alone is not economically and socially sustainable. It will not happen until or unless the developing nations have a reached a stage of development and affluence that they can accommodate the costs of doing so. Alternatively, the developed world must be prepared to meet all the costs Chomitz et al. There are vast areas of unused land as discussed earlier some of which is degraded and of low fertility.

Technological advances are being made to bring this land back into production. This should be a major priority since a significant proportion of cleared tropical forest will eventually end up as degraded land of low fertility. We can stop using timber and urge others to do the same. As long there is a market for wood products, trees will continue to be cut down. Labelling schemes, aimed at helping consumers to choose environmental friendly timbers are currently being discussed in many countries Anon.

Planting trees outside forest areas will reduce pressure on forests for timber, fodder and fuelwood demands. Moreover the deforested areas need to be reforested. FAO considered that half of the current tropical deforestation could be stopped if the governments of deforesting countries were determined to do so Anon. They have the advantage over government organizations and large international organizations because they are not constrained by government to government bureaucracy and inertia.

They are better equipped to bypass corruption and they are very effective at getting to the people at the frontier who are in most need.

In order for forest management to succeed at the forest frontier, all parties with an interest in the fate of the forest should be communally involved in planning, management and profit sharing. But forest ownership and management rights are almost always restricted and restrictions on ownership and use define alternative tenure systems. The balance of rights can be tilted strongly toward society in the form of publicly owned strictly protected areas.

State ownership and management can be retained but with sustainable timber extraction allowed. Land reform is essential in order to address the problem deforestation. However an enduring shift in favour of the peasants is also needed for such reforms to endure Colchester and Lohmann, Moreover the rights of indigenous forest dwellers and others who depend on intact forests must be upheld.

Therefore, the recognition of traditional laws of the indigenous peoples as indigenous rights will address the conflicts between customary and statutory laws and regulations related to forest ownership and natural resource use while ensuring conservation of forest resources by the indigenous communities. In all cases when such projects are proposed there has been a massive opposition from local people. Campaigns opposing such developments and the campaigns to reform the large aid agencies which fund such schemes should be supported.

Local campaigns against specific mining, dams, industrial and tourist developments should be supported. Further reform of the World Bank and other such organizations is largely the demand of time. Research substantiates it and helps to understand the problem, its cause and mitigation. This arena is lagging behind for paucity of funds and investments encourages this arena. There is a lack of knowledge and information in the general community about forests and forestry.

Forest managers and those developing forest policies need to be comprehensively educated and need to appreciate the complexity of the interacting ecological, economical, social, cultural and political factors involved. Deforestation: Causes, Effects and Control Strategies 21 5. Knowledge of how much forest, where it is and what it is composed of seems to be straightforward but surprisingly this most basic information is not always available.

It is not possible to properly manage a forest ecosystem without first understanding it. New remote sensing technologies make it feasible and affordable to identify hotspots of deforestation. The international community could undertake monitoring efforts that would have immediate payoffs. A priority is to fund and coordinate basic monitoring on the rate, location and causes of global deforestation and forest poverty along with the impacts of project and policy interventions.

Without this information, policy makers are flying blind and interest groups lack a solid basis for dialogue Chomitz et al. These approaches include negotiation, warnings, cancelling work orders, notices of violation, fines, arrests and court action.

Conclusion Economic globalization combined with the looming global land scarcity increases the complexity of future pathways of land use change. In a more interconnected world, agricultural intensification may cause more rather than less cropland expansion.

The apparent tradeoff between forest and agriculture can be minimized through spatial management and the use of degraded or low competition lands Lambin and Meyfroidt, This can be further addressed by community based forest management which builds on political goodwill and strong community institutions.

New challenges from climate change require urgent action to explore and protect the local value of forests for livelihood even more. These renewed activities will safeguard traditional ways of life and the environmentally important forest ecosystems of the world.

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