Dietary overlap and potential competition in a dynamic ungulate community in northwestern Canada. Bennett Dam Threat 7. However, existing policies, regulations, and enforcement in this area are inadequate to prevent mixing of domestic bison and wood buffalo recovery plan nz Wood Bison Harper et al. It provides all Canadians with information to help take action on species conservation. Thus, a lack of public acceptance for reintroduced populations is considered a limiting factor. Greenhouse Gas Science and Technology The Chitek Lake local population is not included herein because it lies outside the original range of Wood Bison.

The recovery team consists of five representatives from each country and team members are appointed by the Canadian Wildlife Service and its corresponding agency in the United States, the U. Fish and Wildlife Service. The first Plan was published in and its purpose was to chart a course to ensure whooping cranes did not become extinct.

The recovery plan goal is to protect the whooping crane and its habitat and allow the overall population to grow so that it is ecologically and genetically stable.

Since the first Plan was completed, the international team of biologists has revised it on three different occasions. Mortality can occur due to infrastructure itself, as animals become entrapped in the structure, though the impact of this is generally low Threat 3. Bison have been observed rubbing on pipelines and near oil and gas infrastructure Beaver First Nation and in cases where spills have occurred, it is highly probable that the animals come into contact with industrial effluents.

Corrosion from abandoned well sites may also lead to pollution Appendix 1. In the Alberta oil sands region, limestone is sometimes used for road base construction, creating long lasting dust that impacts air quality Appendix 1.

Air pollution produced by regional oil sands development includes significant sulfate Howell et al. Airbourne industrial emissions are detected at least 30 km away from their source Lynam et al. Hydrogen sulfide gas release from oil and gas drilling has the potential to be a significant threat, as noted in the Hay Zama area Appendix 1, LeNeveu The oil sands area is one of the largest producers of secondary organic aerosols in North America Liggio et al. Oil production in the oil sands area has also been linked to the acidification of ecosystems and deposition of toxic compounds Kelly et al.

The long-term health effects and cumulative impacts of pollution, disturbance, and habitat modifications by industrial developments are currently unknown. Collisions with vehicles are an important mortality factor for most Wood Bison local populations Appendix 1, Beaver First Nation , Nishi , Rowe Wood Bison often use linear corridors such as road rights-of-way for grazing and spend considerable time on roads. During winters with high snow pack bison tend to use roads for travel, resulting in an increase in highway mortality Rowe Animals will sometimes bed down on the warm asphalt in winter, and then become covered by snowfall and represent a road hazard in low visibility conditions Appendix 1.

Bison on roadways are particularly problematic at night under any weather condition Appendix 1, Beaver First Nation , Northwest Territories Environment and Natural Resources Road mortality also occurs during the rutting season when there is an increase in movement of bison along and across roads. In the Hay Zama local population in northwestern Alberta, vehicle collisions are considered the largest source of uncontrolled known mortality Mitchell and Gates Road mortality tends to be more common between August and December in the Mackenzie local population Northwest Territories Environment and Natural Resources Approximately 20 bison-vehicle collisions are reported each year in the Northwest Territories Department of Transportation ; presumably more are unreported.

The Mackenzie herd experiences the largest number of bison mortalities due to motor vehicle collisions of wild Wood Bison herds in Canada; over bison were killed in vehicle collisions from to Species at Risk Committee Many preventative and educational measures have been taken in this territory and other provinces and territories for their respective herds.

Bison can also be associated with roads developed and maintained for industrial use see industry-related Threats 3,5,6,9 above. Bison tend to follow linear features in an exploratory fashion and have done so in northeastern British Columbia, where they have come into conflict with agricultural operations, including commercial bison farms C.

Thiessen, pers. Linear developments that result in conflicting land use problems with Wood Bison are generally detrimental to recovery. The preference of Wood Bison to follow linear disturbances may be exploited to encourage animals to move away from undesirable locations, such as highways, by clearing paths toward more suitable, safe, habitat.

Some Wood Bison local populations make extensive use of rivers in their ranges. As a result, summer and winter river crossings can be common. While Wood Bison tend to be good swimmers, increased water vehicular traffic for recreation, transportation, or seismic exploration could result in bison mortality through direct vehicle collisions or the creation of waves or choppy water that can swamp bison swimming across rivers Larter et al.

This is especially a threat for the Nahanni local population that often crosses the Liard River Larter et al. Bulls and calves are likely most susceptible, as they swim with their noses only a few inches above the water. Bison are hunted for Indigenous traditional use and are of cultural importance to many Indigenous peoples.

The Indigenous and historic harvest of this population is locally considered to be sustainable, but with access into the area increasing with rising industrial activity, the herd was thought to be facing considerably higher sport and trophy hunting pressure, potentially representing a significant threat Appendix 1.

Prior to this, the hunt on this herd was provincially unregulated. In other parts of the range, where hunting is regulated, hunting may not be a threat to Wood Bison recovery. Hunting tags for the Aishihik and Hay Zama herds are issued yearly to control population numbers and limit the geographic spread of the herds Threat 5. Increased access to hunting bison has been shown to increase public acceptance, as the perceived value of these animals on the landscape is increased.

Thus, while unregulated hunting is a significant threat, as is the control of Wood Bison movement across the landscape Threat 5. In addition to the negative impact that bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis have on the productivity of infected populations Threat 8.

To prevent disease transmission to the Mackenzie local population from animals in the Wood Buffalo National Park metapopulation, the Government of the Northwest Territories has created a Bison Control Area, a 39, km2 bison-free buffer zone between the Mackenzie and Wood Buffalo National Park local populations Figure 3. Within this area, aerial surveillance is conducted annually, bison are removed and disease-tested, and hunting Threat 5.

Similarly, the Government of Alberta established a 36, km2 Bison Protection Area surrounding the Hay Zama local population Figure 3 , within which bison hunting is regulated to limit population growth to minimize the risk of disease transmission from the Wood Buffalo National Park metapopulation, and to assess its disease status Government of Alberta This includes the area to the east of Wood Buffalo National Park.

The hybridization of free-ranging Wood Bison with free-ranging Plains Bison, domestic bison, and cattle is also a threat Threat 8. In British Columbia, a free-ranging Plains Bison population Pink Mountain was established within the original range of Wood Bison in , precluding recovery of Wood Bison at this site.

While presently important in mitigating the threats posed by hybridization and disease, management zones inhibit natural dispersal and gene flow between Wood Bison local populations and the potential re-establishment of Wood Bison populations in these areas COSEWIC , further limiting Wood Bison recovery through the loss of genetic diversity in isolated populations.

Fire naturally acts to maintain meadow habitat preferred by Wood Bison. Wood Bison habitat may be lost or degraded through fire suppression, which can result in the transition of meadow habitats to shrubs and trees in the absence of other perturbations such as flooding Quinlan et al.

As such, fire suppression is considered a threat to Wood Bison recovery. Prescribed burning, however, can be an effective management tool to improve foraging habitat for Wood Bison Fort Nelson First Nation and Shifting Mosaics Consulting In the Northwest Territories, up to km2 were managed with fire in some years Chowns and smaller areas near Nordquist Flats in British Columbia have benefited from fire to improve habitat for Wood Bison. Modifying policies to reduce fire suppression in large expanses of unoccupied crown land could serve to enhance or create meadow habitat for Wood Bison.

As such, fire management that emulates natural fire regimes is not considered a threat to bison. However, fires can lead to direct mortality and bison do avoid recently burned areas, returning once the regrowth of the area has begun Appendix 1. If fires are particularly hot or large, this can exclude bison from a large region for a longer period of time, reducing forage capacity and suitable habitat and increasing the potential for starvation Appendix 1. Unusually hot fires can result from a buildup of fuel in the system due to prolonged fire suppression.

Climate change and drought Threat 11 may lead to shifting fire regimes. The construction of dams on rivers such as the Peace River has induced changes in the hydrological regime of areas such as the Peace-Athabasca Delta see for e. Peters and Prowse These hydrological changes have, in turn, modified meadow succession Carbyn et al. Natural variation and climate change in addition to dam construction may have contributed to these changes, but the relative contribution of each is unknown.

Similar to the Peace-Athabasca Delta, the meadows downstream on the Slave River Basin do not receive the same amount of flooding they once did, although natural variation and climate change in addition to dam construction may have contributed to this change Timoney Reduced flooding of these areas has affected the vegetation community, causing a shift from sedges important winter forage for bison to grass, forbs, and shrubs, thereby reducing habitat availability Prowse and Conly , Townsend Increased spread of invasive thistle Threat 8.

Bennett Dam or other hydrological changes Appendix 1, Candler et al. Local residents of the Peace-Athabasca Delta region noted that bison movement patterns were historically predictable, where animals would move to higher ground at the time of spring flooding Appendix 1. Without the annual flood, movement patterns are no longer reliable. Two introduced, cattle-derived diseases, bovine tuberculosis and bovine brucellosis, occur in some wild bison populations in the Wood Buffalo National Park area.

Both diseases were introduced into bison from infected cattle and can be transmitted among wildlife including species at risk , livestock, and to humans, especially hunters Nishi et al. Bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis can potentially limit populations because they are chronic diseases that negatively affect fecundity and survival Fuller , Joly and Messier a, Joly and Messier Bison that tested positive for both bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis in Wood Buffalo National Park had reduced winter survival and reproductive rates Joly and Messier , influenced in part by the interactions among disease presence, habitat quality, and wolf predation.

However, the relationships between these variables in Wood Buffalo National Park are complex and poorly understood, with conflicting interpretations of how the system functions Carbyn et al. There is currently no vaccine that has demonstrated efficacy for tuberculosis in bison. There is an effective vaccine for the control of brucellosis in bison but vaccinating wild populations is challenging Shury et al.

Because management actions have to be undertaken to decrease the risk of disease transmission from diseased Wood Bison, efforts to reach the short-term population and distribution objectives may impede or delay achievement of the long-term population and distribution objectives.

The potential transmission of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis to disease-free Wood Bison carries ecological and human health implications for sustainable harvesting by local communities Gates et al.

In , the entire captive Hook Lake Wood Bison Recovery Project local population was destroyed after bovine tuberculosis was Wood Canoe Plans Pdf Maker detected in the conservation project Lutze-Wallace et al. As such, these diseases are indirectly limiting populations because management interventions have to be taken to control diseases by reducing population growth, size, and distribution Threat 5. Control measures can be sporadic and have no guarantee of success, and thus are not an effective long-term solution to controlling the spread of these diseases.

Furthermore, there are no control areas separating diseased local populations from the disease-free Ronald Lake and Wabasca local populations, which are both in close geographic proximity to diseased local populations. It also remains important to recognize the potential for future transmission of these and other zoonotic diseases between domestic and wild animals, in both directions.

Encroachment by domestic species, such as bison, cattle, sheep, and goats, into the current wild bison range represents a potential risk to be monitored. It is not known what, if any, impacts these bacteria have on Wood Bison at an individual or population level, as only one clinical case has been identified to date in Wood Bison Forde et al.

The presence of MAP may have significance for Wood Bison translocation given the potential for regulatory and import disease-testing requirements, and it is recommended that animals be translocated between herds of similar health status.

Canada Thistle Cirsium arvense is an aggressive invasive weed that has been increasingly spreading in the Wood Buffalo National Park region for the last several decades. Although the cause of its introduction is unknown, it appears to be spreading from the center of the park outward, leading to speculation that it was brought in with hay for livestock in the mids.

Increased drying Threats 7. Seasonal flooding was thought to reduce weed abundance, and invasive thistle is frequently observed in dried out regions. Flooding events are less frequent in the Peace-Athabasca Delta since the construction of the W.

Bennett Dam Threat 7. It is also a rapid recolonizer after a fire Appendix 1 , outcompeting native plants. Bison in Wood Buffalo National Park avoid regions where thistle is prominent as they will not walk through the area and do not eat thistle Candler et al.

This may be a mechanism that maintains the separation between the diseased Wood Buffalo National Park and disease-free Ronald Lake local populations, but Ronald Lake bison may be forced to move in to this suboptimal habitat if development continues in their herd range Candler et al.

Plains Bison in Prince Albert National Park avoid Canada Thistle in summer but select it in winter despite being a suboptimal food source, likely because it is easier to locate as it tends to stand up out of the snow Fortin et al.

With increased drying conditions predicted with climate change Threat 11 , this noxious weed will likely continue to expand, further decreasing available forage and suitable habitat for bison.

Non-native seed mixes are sometimes used in reclamation projects. This can impact bison movements, as they may be drawn to these areas if they prefer the non-native plants, or avoid them if they prefer native species. Rules and recommendations regarding seed mixes for reclamation projects vary widely with industry and jurisdiction.

Using appropriate native seed mixes in the Northwest Territories is especially difficult, due to a lack of knowledge on seed production and successional processes, and a lack of available seeds indigenous to the Northwest Territories Mackenzie Valley Land and Water Board , Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada Non-native plant seeds can also be dispersed along roadways via vehicular travel Ansong and Pickering , which again may impact bison use depending upon whether they prefer or avoid the non-native plants D.

Allaire, pers. As there is the potential for diet competition between Wood Bison and feral horses, it is possible that feral horses could pose a threat to Wood Bison in situations where forage is limited Jung et al. Anthrax Bacillus anthracis bacterial infections are a concern for Wood Bison populations, because anthrax spores are highly resistant and long-lived, persisting in soils of meadows preferred by Wood Bison.

During outbreaks, infected animals suddenly become ill and die, although the disease can also be nonlethal Bagamian et al. It is not possible to estimate an infection rate for anthrax due to the disease ecology. Anthrax spores disperse into the local environment by the release of body fluids from infected and dead animals through body orifices or via scavenging, which then become a potential source for disease outbreaks in the future BDTF Certain environmental and climatic conditions appear to be required to expose animals to concentrations of spores, which is followed by explosive outbreaks of the disease Dragon and Rennie , Gates et al.

Timely and effective carcass cleanup reduces localized environmental contamination of anthrax spores Nishi et al. For example, between and , bison deaths in the Slave River Lowlands and Wood Buffalo National Park were attributed to anthrax Elkin et al.

From to , there have been at least 23 documented outbreaks killing at least bison in the three areas Species at Risk Committee Continued outbreaks of this magnitude could impact population dynamics, social structure, and genetic diversity in the area.

Currently, there are effective vaccines for the control of anthrax, but vaccine delivery is challenging in free-ranging populations. Wolf and bear predation are naturally occurring factors for Wood Bison survival where they co-occur Van Camp , Carbyn et al. This hypothesis, proposed by Messier and Gates , suggests that bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis reduce productivity and increase the vulnerability of infected individuals to predation, with the interaction resulting in a decline in bison abundance.

Simulation studies by Joly and Messier a suggested that Wood Bison populations that are infected with tuberculosis and brucellosis are more likely to exist at low densities if they are also experiencing wolf predation.

However, Bradley and Wilmshurst postulated that the population decline of Wood Bison in Wood Buffalo National Park during the s and s could be explained by low juvenile survival due to predation, without invoking the effects of diseases.

Thus, while alternate hypotheses exist, increased predation and its interplay with disease should be considered a threat to bison recovery. Grizzly and black bears Ursus americanus occur in large parts of the Wood Bison range, and their impact on population dynamics through calf predation is unknown.

Communities across the present range of Wood Bison report dramatically increasing numbers of wolves and in many cases, noticeable increases in wolf predation on bison Appendix 1, Mikisew Cree First Nation In deforested regions Threat 5. This is also thought to be increasing the predation threat to Wood Bison Appendix 1.

The mortality rate attributed to increased wolf presence is currently unknown, but was highlighted across the range of the species. For recently introduced herds, wolf predation appears to be increasing, presumably as wolf packs adapt to bison on the landscape and learn to hunt them Larter et al. The hybridization of free-ranging Wood Bison with free-ranging Plains Bison, domestic bison, and cattle is a potential threat because it can compromise Wood Bison genetic integrity and introduce detrimental traits.

The majority of animals used in commercial bison ranching in Canada are Plains Bison or bison of unknown genetic makeup. The proliferation of bison ranches and their encroachment into the original range of Wood Bison Threat 2. There has been widespread cattle gene introgression in Plains Bison populations across North America Polziehn et al. Cattle introgression has been shown to reduce male height and weight in some populations of Plains Bison Derr et al.

No evidence of cattle introgression has been described in Wood Bison to date; however, statistical confidence is low due to small sample sizes Halbert and Derr The encroachment of cattle ranching into original Wood Bison range increases the risk that hybridization between these species will occur.

Climate change is anticipated to have a negative net impact on Wood Bison habitat, including a reduction or removal of ecological barriers that limit range occupancy by bison, changes in pathogen host distribution, transmission and effects of pathogens, and habitat composition Threat Wood Bison are distributed within three climatic regions where the highest rates of warming in Canada 60 year warming trend of 2.

Climate change has influenced, and will continue to influence, the extent of water and flooding Threat Bennett dam , and has the potential to be a significant threat to Wood Bison recovery.

Climate change and drought Threat The reduction in flooding in the Hay Zama area has reduced the availability of open grassy meadows that bison use Beaver First Nation Extreme flooding Threat Extensive flooding has also reduced availability of meadow habitats and shifted the distribution of the Mackenzie local population Northwest Territories Environment and Natural Resources Bison can also drown by falling through thin ice in the spring, which has impacted the Mackenzie and Nahanni local populations D.

Freeze-thawing events may become more common with climate change. Though some drowning events are a naturally limiting factor, unusually large flooding events pose a threat due to the severity of their impact on the population.

Harsh winters with heavy snowfall or thick ice formation via freezing rain or snow melts Threats It should also be noted that some impacts of climate change might increase habitat quantity and quality for Woodwork Plans For Desks For Sale Wood Bison.

For example, the amount of grassland is expected to increase in northern Alberta, northern British Columbia, and Yukon, which may result in increased habitat for bison in these areas Rehfeldt et al. All disease-free Wood Bison local populations besides Ronald Lake and Wabasca have either been established from relatively few founders Elk Island National Park, Mackenzie , or have been founded from Elk Island National Park Appendix 3 , and therefore, have lower genetic diversity than the original source population in Wood Buffalo National Park Wilson and Strobeck , Wilson et al.

Furthermore, several local populations are maintained at an artificially small size to prevent range expansion and contact between diseased and disease-free local populations, to manage the risk to people and property in communities, and to provide hunting opportunities Threat 5. In general, smaller populations have lower genetic diversity and are subject to higher genetic drift over time.

Genetic diversity within populations can be increased by allowing migration between populations; however, few movement corridors are available among Wood Bison local populations, and there is active control of movement between most diseased and disease-free local populations.

Low levels of genetic diversity can have serious implications for population survival through inbreeding depression, which may reduce population fitness and increase the probability of population extirpation. Inbreeding depression has been linked to low levels of calf recruitment and high levels of calf mortality in a Plains Bison population Halbert et al.

In the long-term, low levels of genetic diversity can reduce the ability of a population to adapt to changing environmental conditions, such as those resulting from climate change, and its ability to respond to natural selection pressures summarized in McFarlane et al.

Consequently, the small founding size of most Wood Bison local populations, combined with the current small size of some local populations and the lack of animal movement among local populations, raises concerns about levels of genetic diversity in Wood Bison local populations.

Population and distribution objectives for the Wood Bison are set at two time-scales: short-term and long-term. This two-staged approach is necessary because of the complexity of the disease issue and the ongoing uncertainty as to how to eliminate the threat of exotic bovine diseases in the species over the long-term. Due to this complexity, population and distribution objectives are not proposed for existing diseased Wood Bison local populations at this time. Instead, the competent Minister will propose population and distribution objectives for diseased local populations, informed by the work of a collaborative process to be established to explore management options for these local populations and their impact on Wood Bison recovery.

The short-term population and distribution objective is to maintain the disease-free status, population size and range of all disease-free Wood Bison local populations within the original range of Wood Bison in Canada.

For local populations that currently exceed 1, animals, population reductions may sometimes be necessary to improve public acceptance Clark et al. If there are local populations for which the disease status is currently uncertain, the local populations and the ranges in which they occur should be maintained until such time as their disease status is ascertained.

Local populations that are shown to be disease-free, or from which bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis have been eliminated, would be included under the population and distribution objective above. Extralimital Footnote 6 and captive local populations managed for conservation should also be maintained. Both of these can act as important reservoirs to protect Wood Bison and their genetic diversity from catastrophes that may occur within current populations, helping to secure the subspecies in local ecosystems.

This is especially true for the Wood Buffalo National Park and surrounding local populations, which retain the greatest level of genetic diversity Wilson et al. Additionally, these bison are valuable for socio-cultural connections to Indigenous groups as well as their fundamentally important ecological role in the surrounding ecosystem. The target population size of 1, animals was chosen based on modeling studies performed to estimate the loss of genetic diversity in Wood Bison populations over time.

The number of local populations is based on professional judgement and expertise of members within the now-dissolved Wood Bison Recovery Team as to how many local populations might ensure species recovery throughout the original range in Canada.

In order to meet this objective, some existing local populations may merge to form a larger population. Local populations of 1, animals that meet the long-term population and distribution objectives may also end up occurring in locations where there are currently no Wood Bison.

Smaller local populations maintained in a natural state throughout and external to the original range of Wood Bison play an important role in Wood Bison recovery, helping to secure the subspecies in local ecosystems.

The population and distribution objectives are not achieved until local population levels are sufficient to sustain harvesting activities, consistent with existing Aboriginal and Treaty rights of Aboriginal peoples of Canada.

Indigenous harvest may be supported for local populations of any size, so long as the Wood Bison local population remains self-sustaining. Maintaining a self-sustaining population is traditionally part of Indigenous herd management Appendix 1. A partial list of pertinent publications can be found below. The existence of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis in Wood Bison indirectly limits local population growth of the species and will always pose a threat to surrounding disease-free local populations, domestic bison, cattle, and people, unless the threat of disease transmission is eliminated from infected local populations.

The perceived risk of diseased bison on the landscape by provincial and territorial governments, communities, and stakeholders has a great impact on Wood Bison management and recovery. Without the risk of disease spread, there would be no need for bison control areas in Alberta and Northwest Territories, increasing available range and gene flow in this area.

There is currently a vaccine available for the control of brucellosis in bison RB51 , but no vaccine has demonstrated efficacy for tuberculosis in bison. Also, it should be noted that brucellosis is unlikely to be eradicated through an RB51 vaccination program alone Olsen et al. Preventing the spread of these diseases from diseased local populations in the Wood Buffalo National Park metapopulation will require the development and implementation of interim management measures that, at a minimum, will contain the spread of these diseases.

Other interim actions, such as population reduction and disease testing, are underway in Alberta Government of Alberta In addition, a contingency plan must be developed to address the scenario of potential disease transmission to currently uninfected Wood Bison recovery local populations.

The National Wildlife Disease Strategy provides an opportunity and the context under which implementation of a shared management solution would be possible. While interim measures are important, ultimately elimination of the threat of transmission of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis over the long-term is necessary. While reduction and elimination of these bovine diseases in the Wood Buffalo National Park metapopulation through depopulation and repopulation has been deemed technically feasible Shury et al.

Indigenous and non-Indigenous community members generally support the presence of Wood Bison in Wood Buffalo National Park, but would prefer that these animals were disease-free Will Because Wood Buffalo National Park, where bovine brucellosis and tuberculosis are present, is the most genetically diverse Wood Bison local population, elimination of disease must conserve this genetic diversity.

At present, the only effective tool for the elimination of the threat of bovine brucellosis and tuberculosis from Wood Buffalo National Park is the depopulation of the Wood Bison in the area. However, this may not be a desired action for a number of reasons, including: public acceptance; the cultural connection between Indigenous groups in the area and these bison; the potential negative impacts on the Wood Buffalo National Park ecosystem; and the value of the Wood Buffalo National Park Wood Bison to species recovery as the most genetically variable Wood Bison population and the only bison population in the world that has existed in a location where they have always experienced wolf predation although wolves were managed in Wood Buffalo National Park through poisoning and trapping from to the s Carbyn et al.

A new assessment of the practicality of alternatives to eliminate the threat of disease transmission, including recent advances in genetic salvage and long-term potential for the development of effective vaccines and improved diagnostic tests for bovine diseases, is required.

A multi-stakeholder collaborative planning committee is being established to evaluate options to eliminate the risk of transmission of bovine brucellosis and tuberculosis from wild bison. McFarlane et al. Like most species, the effective population size in bison is much smaller than the actual size, due to past bottlenecks and inequality in number of breeding males and females Hedrick Options to address the threat of loss of genetic diversity include movement of disease-free animals of known genetic background among local populations Gross and Wang , implementing selective breeding in recovery local populations Wilson et al.

Genetic diversity in reintroduced Wood Bison local populations could be improved by augmenting them with disease-free genetic material from the most genetically diverse stock in Wood Buffalo National Park or the Slave River Lowlands.

A method for application of advanced reproductive techniques to Wood Bison is being developed that could allow the transfer of genetic material without the risk of disease transfer Palomino et al. This approach could also be used to transfer genetic material from more heavily managed or captive populations to wild populations, where appropriate.

There is value in maintaining publicly managed local conservation populations that may be outside of the traditional Wood Bison Range, such as the Elk Island National Park local population, to assist in achieving the short- and long-term objectives of the Wood Bison Recovery Strategy. Recommendations have been outlined in Wilson and Zittlau that will assist land managers in maintaining genetic diversity within these local conservation populations.

While increasing potential for connectivity among isolated local free-ranging, disease-free populations, and for population expansions, is important, it is not as important as containing and preventing the spread of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis from Wood Bison local populations with diseases to disease-free local populations the first broad strategy in Table 5. As such, the strategies below should only be undertaken in locations or at a time where they will not increase the risk of disease transmission from diseased to disease-free local populations of bison.

A number of Wood Bison local populations have stabilized at a smaller size than required to meet the long-term population and distribution objectives, and are in relatively close proximity to other Wood Bison local populations.

Currently, the total amount of suitable habitat available for Wood Bison recovery is unknown. Identification of potential areas for reintroductions will be an important step for future recovery of Wood Bison to ensure that disease-free, genetically diverse, connected, self-sustaining, free-ranging local populations can be distributed throughout their original Canadian range.

The habitat limits for all local populations should also be examined, as this will help direct management decisions for maintaining local population sizes in line with the population and distribution objectives. While variables such as habitat type are important, habitat supply modelling should also take into account stochastic factors such as wildfires and climate change on habitat availability.

The containment of these diseases in the short-term and elimination of the risk of transmission in the long-term is an important step to increase the area available for additional healthy local populations and support the population and distribution objectives. The continued inventory and monitoring of demographics and disease status of all Wood Bison local populations is a necessary component of the recovery program, as it will assist with evaluating and determining when population and distribution objectives have been attained.

Population and genetic modelling through population viability analyses will help determine persistence levels of local populations under current conditions, assess limiting factors, and evaluate the importance of different management scenarios.

Other threats that will need to be removed or reduced to meet the population and distribution objectives include accidental mortality via land and water traffic Threat 4 , hybridization Threat 8. A number of management options exist that may reduce road mortality including: high visibility collars on bison, enforcement of lower speed limits, improved signage, modifications to road salting policies, aversive conditioning where unpleasant stimuli are applied to unwanted behaviour, such as using loud noises to scare bison away from roads , modification of the habitat adjacent to the highway to deter bison or create more suitable habitat away from the highway with prescribed burning, and intercept baiting with salt or high quality feed Yukon Renewable Resources , Rowe , , B.

Development of new roadways for industrial access into Wood Bison ranges should consider the potential impacts of these roadways on bison movement. Policies, regulations, and guidelines need to be developed and implemented to maintain genetic integrity and prevent hybridization between Plains and Wood Bison in the wild, and the mixing of domestic bison and cattle with free-ranging recovery local populations of Wood Bison.

However, existing policies, regulations, and enforcement in this area are inadequate to prevent mixing of domestic bison and free-ranging Wood Bison Harper et al. Policies, regulations, and guidelines must also be implemented to ensure that Wood Bison habitat is protected, as mentioned in the Population and Distribution objectives. The impacts of these changes on bison habitat should be quantified, and management actions such as modifying the flow from the W.

Bennett dam should be examined to ensure that the bison habitat quality does not continue to decline in these areas.

Changes to the hydrological cycle may also be impacting the spread of invasive thistle in the Wood Buffalo National Park region. Spread of invasive thistle could be limited by implementing early detection and rapid response methods Mikisew Cree First Nation Canada Thistle is classified as a noxious weed in Alberta and an integrated management plan with a variety of control options will likely be most effective as a long-term elimination strategy, given that killing the extensive root system is the only effective control method Alberta Invasive Species Council Maintaining healthy native plant cover and rapidly reseeding disturbed areas can help to prevent establishment Alberta Invasive Species Council Habitats may also be improved for bison Woodworking Lesson Plans Free Code by augmenting native grass populations Appendix 1.

In harsh winters with heavy snowfall, starvation-related deaths have occurred in the Hay Zama herd Government of Alberta The possibility of local community members being contracted to provide supplemental food to reduce starvation-related deaths could be considered in instances where heavy snowfall or large amounts of ice have occurred Beaver First Nation Ascertaining contaminant levels in Wood Bison residing near industrial areas would allow assessment of present levels and a basis upon which to monitor for changes to determine any potential for risk to the animals and those who consume them Beaver First Nation In parts of the Wood Bison range where anthropogenic disturbance is common, it is possible that wolves are moving more readily into areas, and are more able to successfully hunt Wood Bison by using the linear features as travel corridors Appendix 1.

The impact of linear disturbance on Wood Bison depredation should be examined and, if there is a negative relationship between wolf predation on Wood Bison and linear features, attempts should be made to restore linear features so that they cannot be used as travel corridors for wolves. To successfully re-establish and recover Wood Bison in parts of their original range, it is necessary to address and increase awareness of social, cultural, ecological, and economic issues of Indigenous peoples and local communities.

Long-term sustainability of Wood Bison conservation efforts will largely be dependent on the cultural, social, and economic value these conservation populations bring to local communities and Indigenous peoples see for e. Clark et al. In many areas throughout the range of Wood Bison, experience has shown that the perspectives, support, and engagement of local and Indigenous communities will have a significant influence on the outcome of long-term management objectives.

Developing educational material to inform the public about the benefits of having bison on the landscape should increase public acceptance of Wood Bison recovery. Note that many activities to address this limiting factor are already underway Section 6.

Critical habitat is defined in the Species at Risk Act SARA section 2 1 as "the habitat that is necessary for the survival or recovery of a listed wildlife species and that is identified as the species' critical habitat in the recovery strategy or in an action plan for the species". Section 41 1 c of SARA requires that recovery strategies include an identification of the species' critical habitat, to the extent possible, as well as examples of activities that are likely to result in its destruction.

Critical habitat for the Wood Bison cannot be identified at this time due to insufficient information regarding range and habitat usage. Although each local population has similar general needs Section 3. Given the unique land use patterns of each local population, information will need to be acquired for each one.

The general annual range of most herds is known Figure 3 ; however, the specific regions within these ranges that are critical to survival and recovery are presently unknown. One approach to identify Wood Bison critical habitat is to use resource selection function RSF models to determine important habitat variables and delineate suitable habitats Jensen a, b ; thereafter, the amount of habitat required to support population and distribution objectives can be identified.

Critical habitat can also be identified through other means, such as identifying important areas within local population ranges based on use by Wood Bison.

The identification of critical habitat can consider graminoid prevalence, winter foraging habitat with forage biomass being an important component , connectivity including mean inter-patch distance and patch size , habitat use based on occurrence data, standing crop biomass, and species composition.

It is important that the method used to identify critical habitat takes into account the scale-dependency of Wood Bison habitat use. Suitable habitat patches may occur within a larger matrix of less desirable locations. The appropriate method for the identification of critical habitat for each local population will be determined through completion of the Schedule of Studies. A schedule of studies is presented in section 7.

Critical habitat will be fully identified for all free-ranging disease-free local populations within the original Canadian range of Wood Bison Figure 2 following completion of the schedule of studies Table 6. The Chitek Lake local population is not included herein because it lies outside the original range of Wood Bison.

Disease status is as listed in Table 3. Many Indigenous communities contributed extensive knowledge during community consultations in or prior Appendix 1 that will inform the critical habitat identification for bison herd s in their traditional territory.

Critical habitat will be identified for diseased local populations once population and distribution objectives are developed as presented in section 5. The performance indicators presented below provide a way to define and measure progress towards achieving the population and distribution objectives. Action plans may be developed for Wood Bison local populations and not necessarily by jurisdiction. The Minister of Environment and Climate Change may adopt or incorporate parts of an existing provincial or territorial plan, or other relevant planning documents that meet the requirements of SARA as an action plan.

Local community involvement and engagement in the development of each of these local population-based documents will be critical for the successful recovery of Wood Bison. Alberta Invasive Species Council. Canada Thistle Cirsium arvense aka Creeping thistle.

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