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To browse Academia. Skip to main content. Log In Sign Up. Download Free PDF. Eric Quito. Download PDF. A short summary of this paper. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN pbk. English language - Phonetics.

English language - Phonology. English language - Study and teaching - Foreign speakers. R55 '. Information regarding prices, travel timetables and other factual information given in this work is correct at the time of first printing but Cambridge University Press does not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter. My debt to them, which in some cases dates back more than twenty-five years, remains, and I have put copies of the Prefaces to the first three editions on the new website of the book so that those acknowledgements are not lost and forgotten.

In this new edition, I would like firstly to thank Professor Nobuo Yuzawa of the Takasaki City University of Economics for his wise suggestions and his meticulous and expert scrutiny of the text, which have been invaluable to me.

Any errors that remain are entirely my fault. As in all previous editions, I want to thank my wife Helen for all her help and support. Easy things to build out of wood 4th edition areas denote articulations judged impossible. Syllable break li. However, at the comparatively advanced level at which this course is aimed, it is usual to present this information in the context of a general theory about speech sounds and how they are used in language; this theoretical context is called phonetics and phonology.

Why is it necessary to learn this theoretical background? A similar question arises in connection with grammar: at lower levels of study one is concerned simply with setting out how to form grammatical sentences, but people who are going to work with the language at an advanced level as teachers or researchers need the deeper understanding provided by the study of grammatical theory and related areas of linguistics.

The theoretical material in the present course is necessary for anyone who needs to understand the principles regulating the use of sounds in spoken English. Most readers are expected to be either studying English at a university, or to be practising English language teachers.

You may be working under the supervision of a teacher, or working through the course Easy Things To Build Out Of Wood Dreamer individually; you may be a native speaker of a language that is not English, or a native English-speaker. Answers to the exercises are given on pages Only some of the exercises are suitable for native speakers of English. The exercises for Chapter 1 are mainly aimed at easy things to build out of wood 4th edition you to become familiar with the way the written and Things To Build Out Of Wood Easy Video audio exercises work.

You can find it at www. The symbols are always printed in blue type in this book to distinguish them from letters of the alphabet. Chapters 2 and 3 deal with vowels and Chapter 4 with some consonants. After the phonemes of English have been introduced, the rest of the course goes on to look at larger units of speech such as the syllable and at aspects of speech such as stress which could be roughly described as the relative strength of a syllable and intonation the use of the pitch of the voice to convey meaning.

In the former the stress is on the first syllable, while in the latter it is on the second syllable. You will have to learn a number of technical terms in studying the course: you will find that when they are easy things to build out of wood 4th edition in order to be defined or explained, they are printed in bold type. Double quotation marks are used where quotation marks would normally be used - that is, for quoting something that someone has said or might say.

Words are sometimes printed in italics to mark them as specially important in a particular context. The word accent is often confused with dialect. Differences of accent, on the other hand, are pronunciation differences only. The accent Things To Build Out Of Wood Easy Pdf that we concentrate on and use as our model is the one that is most often recommended for foreign learners studying British English. Since it is most familiar as the accent used by most announcers and newsreaders on BBC and British independent television broadcasting channels, a preferable name is BBC pronunciation.

However, the accent described here is typical of broadcasters with an English accent, and there is a useful degree of consistency in the broadcast speech of these speakers. The pronunciation of English in North America is different from most accents found in Britain. But the pronunciation that you are likely to hear from most Americans does sound noticeably different from BBC pronunciation. Within the accents of England, the distinction that is most frequently made by the majority of English people is between northern and southern.

This course deals almost entirely with BBC pronunciation. There is no implication that other accents are inferior or less pleasant-sounding; the reason is simply that BBC is the accent that has usually been chosen by British teachers to teach to easy things to build out of wood 4th edition learners, it is the accent that has been most fully described, and it has been used as the basis for textbooks and pronunciation dictionaries. A term which is widely found nowadays is Estuary English, and many people have been given the impression that this is a new or newly-discovered accent of English.

In reality there is no such accent, and the term should be used with care. The idea originates from the sociolinguistic observation that some people in public life who would previously have been expected to speak with a BBC or RP accent now find it acceptable to speak with some characteristics of the accents of the London area the estuary referred to is the Thames estuarysuch as glottal stops, which would in earlier times have caused comment or disapproval.

If you are a native speaker of English and your accent is different from BBC you should try, as you work through the course, to note what your main differences are for purposes of comparison.

I am certainly not suggesting that you should try to change your pronunciation. If you are a learner of English you are recommended to concentrate on BBC pronunciation initially, though as you work through the course and become familiar with this you will probably find it an interesting exercise to listen analytically to other accents of English, to see if you can identify the ways in which they differ from BBC and even to learn to pronounce some different accents yourself.

Where I quote other writers who have used the term RP in discussion of standard accents, I have left the term unchanged. Other writers have suggested the name GB General British as a term preferable to RP: I do not feel this is satisfactory, since the accent being described belongs to England, and citizens of other parts of Britain are understandably reluctant to accept that this accent is the standard for countries such as Scotland and Wales.

I feel that if we had a completely free choice of model accent for British English it would be possible to find more suitable ones: Scottish and Irish accents, for example, have a more straightforward relationship between spelling and sounds than does the BBC accent; they have simpler vowel easy things to build out of wood 4th edition, and would therefore be easier for most foreign learners to acquire.

However, it seems that the majority of English teachers would be reluctant to learn to speak in the classroom with a non-English accent, so this is not a practical possibility.

For introductory reading on the choice of English accent, see Brown ; Abercrombie ; Cruttenden Chapter 7 ; Collins and Mees ; RoachWe will return to the subject of accents of English in Chapter However, I would recommend looking at Collins and Mees, ; Cruttenden In the past, many different conventions have been proposed and students have often been confused by easy things to build out of wood 4th edition that the symbols used in one book are different from the ones they have learned in another.

The symbols used in this book are in most respects those devised by A. Gimson for his Introduction to the Pronunciation of English, the latest version of which is the revision by Easy Things To Build Out Of Wood 45 Cruttenden Cruttenden, The subject of symbolisation is returned to in Section 5. Notes fo r teachers Pronunciation teaching has not always been popular with teachers and language-teaching theorists, and in the s and s it was fashionable to treat it as a rather outdated activity.

No pronunciation course that I know has ever said that learners must try to speak with a perfect RP accent. A person may speak with sounds very different from those of his hearers and yet be clearly intelligible to all of them, as for instance when a Scotsman or an American addresses an English audience with clear articulation.

Much has been written recently about English as an International Language, with easy things to build out of wood 4th edition view to defining what is used in common by the millions of people around the world who use English Crystal, ; Jenkins, This is a different goal from that of this book, which concentrates on a specific accent.

The discussion of the subject in Cruttenden Chapter 13 is recommended as a survey of the main issues, and easy things to build out of wood 4th edition concept of an International English pronunciation is discussed there. I do not feel that it is suitable in this book to go into a detailed analysis of classroom methods, but there are several excellent treatments of the subject; see, for example, Dalton and Seidlhofer ; Celce-Murcia et al and Hewings W ritte n exercises The exercises for this chapter are simple ones aimed at making you familiar with the style of exercises that you will work on in the rest of the course.

The answers to the exercises are given on page The muscles in the chest that we use for breathing produce the flow of air that is needed for almost all speech sounds; muscles in the larynx produce many different modifications in the flow of air from the chest to the mouth.

After passing through the larynx, the air goes through what we call the vocal tract, which ends at the mouth and nostrils; we call the part comprising the mouth the oral cavity and the part that leads to the nostrils the nasal cavity.

Here the air from the lungs escapes into the atmosphere. We have a large and complex set of muscles that can produce changes in the shape of the vocal tract, and in order to learn how the sounds of speech are produced it is necessary to become familiar with the different parts of the vocal tract. These different parts are called articulators, and the study of them is called articulatory phonetics. It represents the human head, seen from the side, displayed as though it had easy things to build out of wood 4th edition cut in half.

You will need to look at it carefully as the articulators are described, and you will find it useful to have a mirror and a good light placed so that you can look at the inside of your mouth.

It is about 7 cm long in women and about 8 cm in men, and at its top end it is divided into two, one Fig. If you look in your mirror with your mouth open, you can see the back of the pharynx. Yours is probably in that position now, but often in speech it is raised so that air cannot escape through the nose.

The other important thing about the soft palate is that it is easy things to build out of wood 4th edition of the articulators that can be touched by the tongue. When we make the sounds k, g the tongue is in contact with the lower side of the soft palate, and we call these velar consonants.

You can feel its smooth curved surface with your tongue. A consonant made with the tongue close to the hard palate is called palatal. You can feel its shape with your tongue. Its surface is easy things to build out of wood 4th edition much rougher than it feels, and is covered with little ridges. You can only see these if you have a mirror small enough to go inside your mouth, such as those used by dentists.

Sounds made with the tongue touching here such as t, d, n are called alveolar. It is usual to divide the tongue into different parts, though there are no clear dividing lines within its structure. This is for the sake of a simple diagram, and you should remember that most speakers have teeth to the easy things to build out of wood 4th edition of their mouths, back almost to the soft palate.

The tongue is in contact with the upper side teeth for most speech sounds. Sounds made with the tongue touching the front teeth, such as English 0, 6are called dental. They can be pressed together when we produce the sounds p, bbrought into contact with the teeth as in f, vor rounded to produce the lip-shape for vowels like u:. Sounds in which the lips are in contact with each other are called bilabial, while those with lip-to-teeth contact are called labiodental. The seven articulators described above are the main ones used in speech, but there are a few other things to remember.

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